Electronics Articles

Article / Updated 09-13-2023

Before you can fire up your Raspberry Pi and start building your own electronics projects, you need to do some basic setup work. Start by setting up the hardware. You'll need the following to set up your Pi so that you can program it for your projects: A Raspberry Pi 2 or 3. A suitable power supply: The Raspberry Pi requires a 5 V power supply connected via a micro-USB connection on the card. The Pi itself will draw about 800 mA, so be sure to use a power supply that can handle at least that much current draw. A monitor: You don't need a large monitor, but go for at least 17 inches. An HDMI cable: If your monitor has an HDMI connection, you'll need a cable with HDMI connectors on both ends. If your monitor has some other type of connection, such as DVI or VGA, you'll need an adapter to connect your monitor to the Pi's HDMI connector. A USB keyboard: Any keyboard with a USB connector will do. A USB mouse: Any mouse with a USB connector will do. A microSD card with NOOBS: The Raspberry Pi uses a microSD card instead of a disk drive. Ideally, you should purchase a microSD card that already has a special program called NOOBS installed on it. (NOOBS stands for New Out Of the Box Software.) This program will allow you to install an operating system so that your Pi can run. If you prefer, you can format your own microSD card for your Pi. You can do that by downloading NOOBS from Raspberry Pi — Teach, Learn, and Make with Raspberry Pi on your computer and then copying the NOOBS software to the microSD card. A network connection: A network connection is essential to download several of the support packages you'll need for your projects. You can connect your Pi to a network in one of two ways: If you have a Raspberry Pi 3, you can use the built-in Wi-Fi to connect to a wireless network. You can use a standard Ethernet cable to plug a Raspberry Pi 2 or 3 into a wired network, provided you have a nearby router or switch with an available network port. That's all you need to get started. Plug the monitor, mouse, and keyboard into your Pi's HDMI and USB ports, insert the microSD card into the microSD slot, and then plug in the power connector. Your Pi will start right up.

Article / Updated 09-11-2023

All of electronics can be divided into two broad categories: analog and digital. One of the most common examples of the difference between analog and digital devices is a clock. On the analog clock, the time is represented by hands that spin around a dial and point to a location on the dial that represents the approximate time. On a digital clock, a numeric display indicates the exact time. Analog refers to circuits in which quantities such as voltage or current vary at a continuous rate. When you turn the dial of a potentiometer, for example, you change the resistance by a continuously varying rate. The resistance of the potentiometer can be any value between the minimum and maximum allowed by the pot. If you create a voltage divider by placing a fixed resistor in series with a potentiometer, the voltage at the point between the fixed resistor and the potentiometer increases or decreases smoothly as you turn the knob on the potentiometer. In digital electronics, quantities are counted rather than measured. There’s an important distinction between counting and measuring. When you count something, you get an exact result. When you measure something, you get an approximate result. Consider a cake recipe that calls for 2 cups of flour, 1 cup of milk, and 2 eggs. To get 2 cups of flour, you scoop some flour into a 1-cup measuring cup, pour the flour into the bowl, and then do it again. To get a cup of milk, you pour milk into a liquid measuring cup until the top of the milk lines up with the 1-cup line printed on the measuring cup and then pour the milk into the mixing bowl. To get 2 eggs, you count out 2 eggs, crack them open, and add them to the mixing bowl. The measurements for flour and milk in this recipe are approximate. A teaspoon too much or too little won’t affect the outcome. But the eggs are precisely counted: exactly 2. Not 3, not 1, not 11/2, but 2. You can’t have a teaspoon too many or too few eggs. There will be exactly 2 eggs, because you count them. So which is more accurate — analog or digital? In one sense, digital circuits are more accurate because they count with complete precision. You can precisely count the number of jelly beans in a jar, for example. But if you weigh the jar by putting it on an analog scale, your reading may be a bit imprecise because you can’t always judge the exact position of the needle. Say that the needle on the scale is about halfway between 4 pounds and 5 pounds. Does the jar weigh 4.5 pounds or 4.6 pounds? You can’t tell for sure, so you settle for approximately 4.5 pounds. On the other hand, digital circuits are inherently limited in their precision because they must count in fixed units. Most digital thermometers, for example, have only one digit to the right of the decimal point. Thus, they can indicate a temperature of 98.6 or 98.7 but can’t indicate 98.65. Here are a few other thoughts to ponder concerning the differences between digital and analog systems: Saying that a system is digital isn’t the same as saying that it’s binary. Binary is a particular type of digital system in which the counting is all done with the binary number system. Nearly all digital systems are also binary systems, but the two words aren’t interchangeable. Many systems are a combination of binary and analog systems. In a system that combines binary and analog values, special circuitry is required to convert from analog to digital, or vice versa. An input voltage (analog) might be converted to a sequence of pulses, one for each volt; then the pulses can be counted to determine the voltage.

Video / Updated 09-08-2023

Alexa works as a smart-home controller, so it can recognize and work with multiple devices from multiple manufacturers. An Alexa device such as an Echo or Echo Spot is an example of such a controller. Devices Alexa can control (like thermostats, speakers, TVs, and so on) just have to be compatible. You must make sure you get smart-home devices that are compatible with your controller, so be sure to buy items that are Alexa compatible. Smart-home devices are all the rage. Using apps on smart phones or simple voice commands from Alexa, you can control light bulbs, thermostats, garage door openers, security cameras, and so much more. To get your Alexa device to connect to and operate smart-home devices, you'll be using either your home’s Wi-Fi network or a direct Bluetooth connection. In most cases, the connection procedure involves two steps: For a Wi-Fi connection, use the manufacturer’s app to give Alexa permission to connect to the device. Enable the manufacturer’s device skill to update Alexa with the voice commands needed to operate the device. How to set up a smart home with Alexa If your smart-home device is Wi-Fi-friendly, go to your mobile device app store and install the manufacturer’s app. Then follow these steps to get your Wi-Fi smart-home device set up in the app: 1. Plug in and, if required, turn on the smart-home device. 2. Open the smart-home device manufacturer’s app. 3. Initiate the procedure for setting up a new device. Look for a command named Add or Add [manufacturer] Device (where manufacturer is the name of the company), or just a big plus sign (+). The setup routine will tell the device to broadcast its Wi-Fi network. 4. Open your mobile device’s Wi-Fi settings and look for the device’s Wi-Fi network. 5. Tap the device network to connect to it. 6. When the connection is complete, return to the device app. The app automatically detects the new network and uses the connection to set up the device. This usually involves giving the device a name. You’ll often have to set up an account with the manufacturer, as well. 7. The app will usually ask for your Wi-Fi credentials, which enables the device to connect to and operate over your network. Having the device on your network is also how Alexa discovers and operates the device, so this step is important. 8. If you see a notice asking whether you want to upgrade the smart-home device firmware, by all means tap Yes or Allow or Update or whatever button answers in the affirmative. With your smart-home device installed, you can view it and rename it if you so desire in the Alexa app. Just tap the Devices icon to open the Devices screen, and from there, you can change the settings for your device. Discover Smart-Home Devices Using an Alexa skill If you’re not using an Alexa device that includes a smart-home hub (such as the Echo Plus and second-generation Echo Show), then you usually need to upgrade Alexa to work with your smart-home device. You upgrade Alexa by enabling the device manufacturer’s Alexa skill. This not only lets Alexa discover the device but also upgrades Alexa with the voice commands that enable you operate the device. 1. Install the manufacturer’s app and use it to get your smart-home device on your Wi-Fi network. 2. In the Alexa app, tap Devices. 3. Tap the Add button (+) that appears in the top-right corner. 4. Tap Add Device. The Alexa app displays icons for some popular brands and some device categories. 5. Tap the category that fits your device, and then tap the manufacturer. The Alexa app prompts you to perform the duties I outline in Step 1. You’ve done all that, so proceed. 6. Tap Continue. The Alexa app opens the information page for the manufacturer’s Alexa skill. 7. Tap Enable. At this point, what happens next depends on the skill, but you’ll usually have to perform one or both of the following: Use the smart-home device app to give Alexa permission to access the device. Link Alexa to the user account associated with the smart-home device. 8. When you’re done, tap Close (X) to return to the skill page. 9. Tap Discover Devices. The Alexa app uses the manufacturer’s Alexa skill to search for available devices. 10. Tap Done. With a manufacturer’s Alexa skill enabled, you can discover new devices by following steps 1 through 5 and then tapping Discover Devices, or you can ask Alexa to run the following voice command: “Alexa, discover my devices.” Control Smart-Home Devices with Alexa Devices Alexa can control are any Alexa-compatible plugs, lights, thermostats, garage door openers, security devices, speaker, TVs, and so on. There are actually three methods you can use to control a smart-home device: Voice commands: This is how you’ll operate most of your smart-home devices, and the rest of this section takes you through the most common voice commands for a selection of smart-home devices. Alexa app: If you have your Alexa device microphone turned off, you can still use the Alexa app to control your smart-home devices. Tap Devices, tap the device type (or All Devices), and then tap the device you want to mess with. The screen that appears contains the controls you can use. Alexa device with a screen: Swipe down from the top of the screen to open the status bar, and then tap the icon for the device type (such as a bulb icon for your smart lights, plugs, and switches). Note, too, that after you issue a smart-home device-related command to an Alexa device with a screen, you see some device controls on the screen for a few seconds. Turn smart plugs on and off with Alexa A smart plug is an electrical outlet that you can control with voice commands. The smart outlet plugs into a regular electrical outlet for power and then you plug a non-smart device — such as a lamp or coffeemaker — into the smart outlet. Voilà! You now have voice control over the dumb device. Note, however, that “control” here just means turning the device on and off using the following voice commands: “Alexa, turn [device name] on.” “Alexa, turn [device name] off.” Replace device name with the name you gave to the smart plug using either the manufacturer’s app or the Alexa app. Work with smart lights and Alexa Another easy and relatively inexpensive way to get your smart-home feet wet is with a smart lightbulb or two. You can buy a smart bulb for less than $20, and installing it is as easy as changing any regular lightbulb. You can also get smart bulbs that change brightness without a separate dimmer switch and that can display different colors. Here are the voice commands to use to turn a smart lightbulb or light switch on or off: “Alexa, turn [device name] on.” “Alexa, turn [device name] off.” For dimmable smart lights (or smart dimmer switches), use any of the following voice commands: “Alexa, brighten [device name].” “Alexa, dim [device name].” “Alexa, set [device name] brightness to [number] percent.” For smart lights that support different colors, use these voice commands: “Alexa, set [device name] to warm white.” “Alexa, set [device name] to cool white.” “Alexa, set [device name] to [color].” (For example, “Alexa, set Chill Room to blue.”) Control smart thermostats with Alexa A smart thermostat gives you voice control over not only the thermostat mode — for example, switching between heating and cooling — but also the temperature setting. You can also interrogate a smart thermostat to learn the current temperature setting. After you’ve installed a smart thermostat, you can control it using the following voice commands: “Alexa, set [device name] to cool.” “Alexa, set [device name] to heat.” “Alexa, set [device name] to auto.” “Alexa, set [device name] to off.” “Alexa, set [device name] to [number] degrees.” “Alexa, increase [device name] by [number] degrees.” “Alexa, decrease [device name] by [number] degrees.” “Alexa, what is [device name]’s temperature?” “Alexa, what is [device name] set to?” Keep an eye on things with Alexa and smart cameras Smart cameras come in both outdoor versions and indoor versions. Outdoor cameras are usually called security cameras or surveillance cameras. You can also get a smart doorbell that has a built-in camera that activates whenever someone rings the bell. If you have an Alexa device with a screen, you can show the smart camera’s feed right on your screen by saying the following voice command: “Alexa, show [device name].” To turn off the camera feed, issue the following voice command: “Alexa, hide [device name].” Other Types of Smart-Home Devices That Work with Alexa Here’s a quick summary (in no particular order) of what’s out there that’s Alexa-friendly: Smart speakers: Echo isn’t the only smart speaker game in town. Big-time audio companies such as Bose, Denon, and Sonos have their own smart speakers that have Alexa built in. Smart locks: These are door locks that you can control with your voice. Smart sprinklers: You can control and schedule garden and lawn watering with a smart sprinkler system. Smart TVs: This is a television or remote that you can control by voice. Smart appliances: These are kitchen appliances that you can operate with voice commands. Amazon’s new Alexa-friendly microwave is the latest addition to this category. Smart vacuums: Why push a vacuum yourself when you can have a robot vacuum that you control via voice?

Article / Updated 08-14-2023

Over the last couple of years, Apple added a handy Dock feature for Apple Watch wearers. You activate Apple Watch Dock by pressing in on the side button. Quite simply, Dock lets you quickly open your favorite apps or move from one app to another. Here’s how to get going: Choose which apps you want to appear in Dock. You can select up to ten of your favorites, in fact. To choose what you want, simply: Open the Apple Watch app on iPhone. Tap My Watch and then choose Dock. Tap Edit and then add or remove apps to choose your favorites. To rearrange apps, touch and hold next to an app, then drag up or down. Save your changes by tapping Done. Press the side button to activate Dock. Swipe up or down. Alternatively, you can turn the Digital Crown. This will cycle through the last apps you opened or your favorite apps. Tap to open an app. If you scroll all the way down to the bottom of the screen, you can tap All Apps to go to the Home screen. Close Dock by pressing the side button again. How to launch Dock and more Here’s how to launch Dock, screen between apps, launch one, and change what you see there. Press the side button. This activates Dock on Apple Watch. Swipe up or down with your fingertip or turn the Digital Crown. This cycles through the last apps you opened or your favorite apps (see the next section on how to customize this). The figure shows an example of what it looks like to cycle through some apps. To close an open app in from Dock, swipe to the right and press the big red “X.” Tap the name of the app to open it full-screen. If you scroll all the way down to the bottom of the screen, you can tap All Apps to go to the Home screen. To close Dock, press the side button again. How to customize Dock To choose which apps appear in Dock — up to ten of your favorites — follow these steps: Grab your iPhone and open the Apple Watch app. Tap My Watch, then Dock. Here you can choose your favorite apps. Tap Edit and then add or remove apps. To remove apps, tap the red –, then tap Remove. To add apps, tap the green +. To rearrange apps, touch and hold next to an app, then drag up or down. Tap Done. This saves your changes.

Article / Updated 08-14-2023

Snapchat is a fun social media app primarily used for sharing photos. Popular for the effects that you can apply to your pictures, Snapchat is a great way to manipulate your images with wacky effects. Snapchat is available for iOS and Android. Here are a few ways you can apply effects to your photos using Snapchat: You can use Lenses to add effects (like the dog face) Filters lets you add colored tints to photos and decorate images with customized backgrounds You can add text, stickers, and emojis to your images Not sure what these mean? Check here for some Snapchat lingo. Launch Snapchat and let’s get started. How to use Snapchat Lenses If you have friends who use Snapchat, you have likely seen a familiar face transformed into an adorable dog. It’s fun to turn yourself into a friendly pup with a playful tongue and adorable ears. You accomplish this with Snapchat’s Lenses. Follow these steps to use Lenses: Switch the camera to selfie mode. Snap a picture.Wait for the white mapping to appear on your face. Once recognized, scroll through the circular icons at the bottom. Choose your preferred Lens. Follow any instructions provided.Some Lenses direct you to do things like “raise your eyebrows.” Doing so usually adds an effect included with a particular Lens. Snapchat is constantly switching up its Lenses. Don’t be surprised to see new Lenses come and go on a regular basis. How to use Snapchat Filters Snapchat also offers Filters for your photos. These overlay your photos with tints and other words. Many of the options use the location of your phone to offer geographically appropriate backgrounds. Here’s an example from Indianapolis. To use Snapchat Filters, follow these simple steps: Snap a picture using either camera. Swipe left or right through the filter options. Choose your preferred filter. If you want to save the photo, select the Save icon from the bottom left corner. How to add text, stickers, and emojis in Snapchat The fun of Snapchat comes with the ability to alter your photos to fit your personality. This wouldn’t be complete without the ability to add text, stickers, and emojis. You do this by using the icons on the right side of the screen. Take a picture with one of the cameras on your phone. A column of options will appear on the right side. Use this column to add effects to your photos. Here are your options: Select the T icon at the top right corner to enter text: Type your text and choose Done when finished. Tap the pencil to write on your image: This allows you to use your finger to add drawings by hand over the top of your photo. Adjust the color on the color palette or add a sticker by selecting the heart at the bottom of the palette. Choose the stickers button to add stickers: This gives you a broad array of emojis and other graphics to add to your image. Make your selection from the options. Use the Scissors icon to create stickers from images in your photo: Tap the scissors. Then use your finger to surround the image you want a duplicate of. Snapchat creates your duplicate sticker and you can reposition in your photo as necessary. The Paperclip icon lets you attach a website to your Snap: Type in the URL to select your site. The recipient of the Snap will see an arrow at the bottom. When selected, the recipient will see the attached website. Choose the Alarm Clock icon to choose how long friends can see your Snaps: Choose between one and ten seconds or the infinity symbol. Snapchat is always upgrading and adding features. Keep your eyes peeled for new fun ways to customize your photos. Check here to learn more about how to use Snapchat.

Article / Updated 08-03-2023

The first time you turn on your iPhone, it will probably have been activated and registered by your cellular carrier or Apple, depending on whom you’ve bought it from. Follow these steps: Press and hold down the side button (found a little bit below the top of the upper-right side of newer iPhone models) or the top button (on the first-generation iPhone SE and earlier models) until the Apple logo appears. A screen appears, asking you to enter your Apple ID. Enter your Apple ID. If you don’t have an Apple ID, follow the instructions to create one. Follow the series of prompts to set up initial options for your iPhone. You can make choices about your language and location, using iCloud (Apple’s online sharing service), whether to use a passcode, connecting with a network, and so on. You can choose to have personal items transferred to your iPhone from your computer when you sync the two devices using iTunes or Finder, including music, videos, downloaded apps, audiobooks, e-books, podcasts, and browser bookmarks. Contacts and Calendars are downloaded via iCloud, or (if you’re moving to iPhone from an Android phone) you can download an Apple app called Move to iOS from the Google Play Store to copy your current Android settings to your iPhone. You can also transfer to your computer any content you download directly to your iPhone by using iTunes, the App Store, or non-Apple stores. Meet the Multi-Touch Screen When the iPhone Home screen appears, you see a colorful background and two sets of icons, as shown in the image below. One set of icons appears on the dock, which is along the bottom of the screen. The dock contains the Phone, Safari, Messages, and Music app icons by default, though you can swap out one app for another. You can add new apps to populate as many as 14 additional Home screens, for a total of 15 Home screens. The dock appears on every Home screen. Other icons appear above the dock. Different icons appear in this area on each Home screen. You can also nest apps in folders, which gives you the ability to store even more apps on your iPhone, depending on your phone's memory. Treat the iPhone screen carefully. The newest models have Ceramic Shield, Apple's toughest screen ever for the iPhone, but it's still made of glass and will break if an unreasonable amount of force is applied. The iPhone uses touchscreen technology: When you swipe your finger across the screen or tap it, you’re providing input to the device just as you do to a computer by using a mouse or keyboard. You'll read more about the touchscreen in the next task, but for now, go ahead and play with it — really, you can’t hurt anything. Use the pads of your fingertips (not your fingernails) and try the following: Tap the Settings icon. The various settings categories appear, as shown in the figure below. To return to the Home screen, press the Home button or, if you have an iPhone without a Home button, swipe up from the very bottom edge of your screen. Swipe a finger from right to left on the Home screen. This action moves you to the next Home screen.The little white dots at the bottom of the screen, above the dock icons, indicate which Home screen is displayed. If you see the search field instead, just lightly move your finger on your iPhone’s screen and the dots will appear in its place. To experience the screen rotation feature, hold the iPhone firmly while turning it sideways. The screen flips to the horizontal (or landscape) orientation, if the app you’re in supports it.To flip the screen back, just turn the device so that it’s short side is up again (portrait mode). Some apps force iPhone to stay in one orientation or the other. Drag your finger down from the very top edge of the screen to reveal such items as notifications, reminders, and calendar entries.Drag up from the very bottom edge of the Home screen to hide these items. Then drag up (iPhones with a Home button) or swipe down from the top-right corner to the center (iPhone without a Home button) to display Control Center, which contains commonly used controls and tools. Say Hello to Tap and Swipe You can use several methods for getting around and getting things done in iPhone by using its multi-touch screen, including Tap once. To open an application on the Home screen, choose a field (such as a search box), choose an item in a list, use an arrow to move back or forward one screen, or follow an online link, tap the item once with your finger. Tap twice. Use this method to enlarge or reduce the display of a web page or to zoom in or out in the Maps app. Pinch. As an alternative to the tap-twice method, you can pinch your fingers together or move them apart on the screen (see the figure below) when you’re looking at photos, maps, web pages, or email messages to quickly reduce or enlarge them, respectively. This method allows you to grow or contract the screen to a variety of sizes rather than a fixed size, as with the double-tap method.Use a three-finger tap to zoom your screen even larger or use multitasking gestures to swipe with four or five fingers. This method is handy if you have vision challenges. Drag to scroll (known as swiping). When you touch your finger to the screen and drag to the right or left, the screen moves (see the figure below). Swiping to the left on the Home screen, for example, moves you to the next Home screen. Swiping up while reading an online newspaper moves you down the page; swiping down moves you back up the page. Flick. To scroll more quickly on a page, quickly flick your finger on the screen in the direction you want to move. Tap the status bar. To move quickly to the top of a list, a web page, or an email message, tap the status bar at the top of the iPhone screen. (For some sites, you have to tap twice to get this to work.) Press and hold down. If you’re using Notes or Mail or any other application that lets you select text, or if you’re on a web page, pressing and holding down on text selects a word and displays editing tools that you can use to select, cut, or copy and paste the text. When you rock your phone backward or forward, the background moves as well (a feature called parallax). You can disable this feature if it makes you seasick. From the Home screen, tap Settings @@--> Accessibility @@--> Motion and then turn on the Reduce Motion setting by tapping the toggle switch (it turns green when the option is enabled). Bezel gestures Your iPhone enables you to perform bezel gestures, which involve sliding left to right from the very outer edge of the phone on the glass to go backward and sliding right to left to go forward in certain apps. You can try these methods now: Tap the Safari icon on the dock at the bottom of any iPhone Home screen to display the Safari web browser. Tap a link to move to another page. Double-tap the page to enlarge it; then pinch your thumb and finger together on the screen to reduce its size. Drag one finger up and down the page to scroll. Flick your finger quickly up or down on the page to scroll more quickly. Press and hold down your finger on a word that isn’t a link. (Links take you to another location on the web.) The word is selected, and the tools shown in the figure below are displayed. (You can use this tool to either get a definition of a word or copy it.) Press and hold down your finger on a link or an image. A menu appears (shown in the figure below) with commands that you select to open the link or picture, open it in a new tab, open it in a tab group, download a linked file, add it to your reading list, copy it, or share it. If you press and hold down on an image, the menu also offers the Add to Photos command. Tap outside the menu to close it without making a selection. Position your thumb and finger slightly apart on the screen and then pinch your thumb and finger together to reduce the page. With your thumb and finger already pinched together on the screen, move them apart to enlarge the page. Press the Home button or swipe up from the bottom of the screen (iPhone without a Home button) to go back to the Home screen.

Article / Updated 08-03-2023

The most obvious differences among iPad models (several models are shown below) are their size and weight, with the Pro being biggest, followed by iPad Air, then iPad, and finally the smallest, iPad mini. All models come in a variety of colors to suit everyone’s taste. All models come either with Wi-Fi only (so you access a Wi-Fi network for Internet access) or with Wi-Fi + Cellular for connecting to the Internet through Wi-Fi or a cellular network (as your cellphone does). The iPad models also differ in available memory and price based on that memory (prices are accurate as of this writing and are subject to change): iPad Pro 11-inch: Wi-Fi models come in 128GB for $799, 256GB for $899, 512GB for $1,099, 1TB for $1,499, and 2TB for $1,899; Wi-Fi + Cellular models of each memory configuration cost $200 more than their Wi-Fi–only counterparts. iPad Pro 12.9-inch: Wi-Fi models come in 128GB for $1,099, 256GB for $1,199, 512GB for $1,399, 1TB for $1,799, and 2TB for $2,199; Wi-Fi + Cellular models of each memory configuration cost $200 more than their Wi-Fi–only counterparts. iPad Air: Wi-Fi models come in 64GB for $599 and 256GB for $749; Wi-Fi + Cellular models come in 64GB for $749 and 256GB for $899. iPad (ninth generation): Wi-Fi models come in 64GB for $329 and 256GB for $479; Wi-Fi + Cellular models come in 64GB for $459 and 256GB for $609. iPad (tenth generation): Wi-Fi models come in 64GB for $449 and 256GB for $599; Wi-Fi + Cellular models come in 64GB for $599 and 256GB for $749. iPad mini: The Wi-Fi model comes in 64GB for $499 and 256GB for $649, and the Wi-Fi + Cellular model comes in 64GB for $649 and 256GB for $799. Finally, the iPad models vary in screen quality and resolution, camera quality, and so on. Logically, the bigger the iPad, the bigger the price and (usually) the higher the quality. How much storage do you want? Storage is a measure of how much information — for example, movies, photos, and software applications (apps) — you can store on a computing device. Storage can also affect your iPad’s performance when handling such tasks as streaming favorite TV shows from the web or downloading music. Streaming refers to playing video or music content from the web (or from other devices) rather than playing a file stored on your iPad. You can enjoy a lot of material online without ever storing its full content on your iPad. Your storage options with the various iPad models range from 64 gigabytes (GB) to 2 terabytes (TB), which is equivalent to 2,000GB. You must choose the right amount of storage because you can’t open up the device and add more components as you typically can with a desktop computer. However, Apple has thoughtfully provided iCloud, a service you can use to store content on the Internet. How much storage is enough for your iPad? Here’s a guideline: If you regularly work with large media files, such as movies or TV shows, you might need 512GB or higher. For example, if you shoot 4K video at 60 frames per second, that will take roughly 1GB of storage space for every two-and-a-half minutes of footage. In light of this fact, at least 1TB of storage may be more appealing if you shoot a lot of video. If you like lots of media, such as movies or TV shows, you may need at least 256GB. For most people who manage a reasonable number of photos, download some music, and watch heavy-duty media, such as movies online, 128GB is probably sufficient. If you simply want to check email, browse the web, and write short notes to yourself, 64GB is likely plenty. Do you know how big a gigabyte (GB) is? Consider this: Just about any computer you buy today comes with a minimum of 256GB of storage. Computers have to tackle larger tasks than iPads, so that number makes sense. The iPad, which uses a technology called flash storage for storing data, is meant (to a great extent) to help you experience online media and email; it doesn’t have to store much because it pulls lots of content from the Internet. In the world of storage, 64GB for any kind of storage is puny if you keep lots of content (such as audio, video, and photos) on the device. Using the iPad with a computer and Internet Although you can use your iPad on its own without any Internet or Wi-Fi access and without a computer to pair it with, it's easier if you have Internet access and a computer that you can (occasionally) use with your iPad. Basic Internet access for your iPad You need to be able to connect to the Internet to take advantage of most iPad features. If you have an Apple ID, you can have an iCloud account, Apple’s online storage service, to store and share content online, and you can use a computer to download photos, music, or applications from non-Apple online sources (such as stores, sharing sites, or your local library) and transfer them to your iPad through a process called syncing. You can also use a computer or iCloud to register your iPad the first time you start it, although you can have the folks at the Apple Store handle registration for you if you have an Apple Store nearby. If you don’t have a store nearby, visit this Apple Help page for assistance. You can set up your iPad without an Internet connection and without going to an Apple Store: The best way to find out more information is to contact Apple Support through an Internet connection on another device, or at a public library or Internet cafe. You can use your iPad without owning a computer and just use public Wi-Fi hotspots to go online (or a cellular connection, if you have such a model). To go online using a Wi-Fi–only iPad and to use many of its built-in features at home, however, you need to have a home Wi-Fi network available. Pair your iPad with a computer For syncing with a computer, Apple’s iPad User Guide recommends that you have: A Mac or PC with a USB 2.0 or 3.0 port and one of these operating systems: macOS version 10.11.6 (El Capitan) or newer Windows 10 or newer iTunes 12.8 or newer on a Mac running macOS El Capitan (10.11.6) through macOS Mojave (10.14.6), Finder on Mac’s running macOS Catalina (10.15) and newer, and iTunes 12.12 or newer on a PC, available at the iTunes Store or via the Microsoft Store An Apple ID Internet access An iCloud account Apple has set up its iTunes software and the iCloud service to give you two ways to manage content for your iPad — including movies, music, or photos you’ve downloaded — and to specify how to sync your calendar and contact information. There are a lot of tech terms to absorb here (iCloud, iTunes, syncing, and so on). My book iPad For Seniors For Dummies, 2023-2024 Edition covers all of these things. Wi-Fi Only or Wi-Fi + Cellular? You use Wi-Fi to connect to a wireless network at home or at other places, such as an Internet cafe, a library, a grocery store, or any public transportation that offers Wi-Fi. This type of network uses short-range radio to connect to the Internet; its range is reasonably limited, so if you leave home or walk out of the coffee shop, you can’t use it anymore. (These limitations may change, however, as towns install community-wide Wi-Fi networks.) Cellular technologies allow an iPad to connect to the Internet via a widespread cellular network. You use it in much the same way that you make calls from just about anywhere with your cellphone. A Wi-Fi + Cellular iPad costs more than the basic Wi-Fi–only model, but it also includes GPS (Global Positioning System) service, which pinpoints your location so that you can get more accurate location information and driving directions. Also, to use your cellular network in the United States, you must pay a monthly fee. The good news is that no carrier requires a long-term contract, which you probably had to have when you bought your cellphone and its service plan. You can pay for a connection during the month you visit your grandkids or friends, for example, and get rid of it when you arrive home. Features, data allowance (which relates to accessing email or downloading items from the Internet, for example), and prices vary by carrier and could change at any time, so visit each carrier’s website to see what it offers. Note that if you intend to stream videos (watch them on your iPad from the Internet), you can eat through your data plan allowance quickly. How do you choose? If you want to wander around the woods or town — or take long drives with your iPad continually connected to the Internet to get step-by-step navigation info from the Maps app — get Wi-Fi + Cellular and pay the additional costs. Don’t bother with cellular if you’ll use your iPad mainly at home or via a Wi-Fi hotspot (a location where Wi-Fi access to the Internet is available, such as a local coffee shop or bookstore). You can find lots of hotspots at libraries, restaurants, hotels, airports, and other locations. If you have a Wi-Fi–only iPad, you can use the hotspot feature on a smartphone, which allows the iPad to use your phone’s cellular connection to go online if you have a data-use plan that supports hotspot use with your phone service carrier. Check out the features of your phone to turn on the hotspot feature.

Article / Updated 08-03-2023

iPad users are a diverse group, and some face visual, motor, or hearing challenges. If you’re one of these folks, you’ll be glad to know that Apple offers some handy accessibility features for your iPad. To make your screen easier to read, you can use the Magnifier app, adjust the brightness, or change the wallpaper. You can also set up the VoiceOver feature to read onscreen elements out loud. Voice Control, Numbers, and Grids are welcome accessibility features to help you navigate more easily. And you can turn on or off a slew of features, including Zoom, Invert Colors, Speak Selection, and Large Type. If hearing is your challenge, you can do the obvious thing and adjust the system volume. The iPad also allows you to use mono audio (useful when you’re wearing headphones) and to set an LED to flash when an alert sounds. Features that help you deal with physical and motor challenges include an AssistiveTouch feature for those who have difficulty using the iPad touchscreen, and Switch Control for working with adaptive accessories. Also included are the Home Button and Call Audio Routing settings, which allow you to adjust how quickly you have to tap the iPad screen to work with features, and whether you can use a headset or speaker to answer calls. The Guided Access feature helps if you have difficulty focusing on one task. It also provides a handy mode for showing presentations of content in settings where you don’t want users to flit off to other apps, as in school or a public kiosk. This article covers some of the accessibility features of iPadOS 16. For more comprehensive coverage, check out the book iPad For Seniors For Dummies, 2023-2024 Edition. How to use the Magnifier app on an iPad The Magnifier app uses your iPad’s camera to help you magnify objects. Magnifier is considered an accessibility feature, but almost everyone needs a magnifier at one time or another. To use Magnifier: Tap the Magnifier app icon to open it. By default, the app resides on the second Home screen. Point your iPad’s camera at the object you want to magnify. Drag the magnification slider (shown in the figure below) to increase or decrease magnification. By default, Magnifier offers an advanced controls pane (see above) with more controls to help customize your experience. You can select which camera to use, adjust brightness and contrast levels, and apply color filters. You can also take freeze frames (to freeze something onscreen momentarily) by tapping the large round button. Freeze frames are not saved to Photos. They disappear into the ether when you close the Magnifier app. Tap the customize controls icon (gear) in the lower left of the advanced controls pane, and then tap Settings in the resulting menu to open the Customize Controls dialog, shown in the figure below. From here, you can determine which controls appear in the advanced controls pane. To remove a control, tap the red circle containing the minus sign (–) found to the left of the control name; then tap the Remove button that appears on the right. To add a control you’ve removed, simply tap the green circle containing the plus sign (+). You can combine magnification with your iPad's portability so that you can reach up to (or behind) an object and magnify something that is not only too small to see otherwise but also out of view entirely. How to set up VoiceOver on an iPad VoiceOver reads the names of screen elements and settings to you, but it also changes the way you provide input to the iPad. In Notes, for example, you can have VoiceOver read the name of the Notes buttons to you, and when you enter notes, it reads words or characters that you’ve entered. It can also tell you whether such features as Auto-Correction are on. VoiceOver is even smarter in iPadOS 16 than in previous incarnations. It includes support for apps and websites that may not have built-in accessibility support. It can read descriptions of images in apps and on the web, and it can identify and speak text it finds in images. To turn on VoiceOver, follow these steps: Tap the Settings icon on the Home screen. In Settings, tap Accessibility. In the Accessibility pane, tap VoiceOver. In the VoiceOver pane, shown in the figure above, tap the VoiceOver switch to turn on this feature (the button becomes green). With VoiceOver on, you must first single-tap to select an item such as a button, which causes VoiceOver to read the name of the button to you. Then you double-tap the button to activate its function. Tap the VoiceOver Practice button to select it and then double-tap the button to open VoiceOver Practice. Practice using gestures (such as pinching or flicking left), and VoiceOver tells you what action each gesture initiates. Tap the Done button and then double-tap the same button to return to the VoiceOver dialog. Tap the Verbosity button once and then double-tap to open its options: Tap the Speak Hints switch and then double-tap the switch to turn the feature on (or off). VoiceOver speaks the name of each tapped item. Tap once and then double-tap the VoiceOver button in the upper-left corner of the Verbosity window to go back to the VoiceOver screen. You can change the language that VoiceOver speaks. In General settings, tap Language & Region, tap iPad Language, and then select another language. However, this action also changes the language used for labels on Home icons and various settings and fields in iPad. Be careful with this setting, lest you choose a language you don’t understand by accident and have a difficult time figuring out how to change it back. If you would like VoiceOver to speak descriptions of images in apps or on the web, swipe up with three fingers to scroll down and then tap and double-tap VoiceOver Recognition, tap and double-tap Image Descriptions, and finally tap and double-tap the Image Descriptions switch to toggle the setting on (green). Don’t ignore the Sensitive Content Output setting in the Image Descriptions page. If the content of an image is something you’d like to keep everyone in the room from hearing, select any option other than Speak. Return to the main VoiceOver screen. If you want VoiceOver to read words or characters to you (for example, in the Notes app), scroll down (use a three-finger swipe to do so), tap and double-tap Typing, and then tap and double-tap Typing Feedback. In the Typing Feedback dialog, tap and then double-tap to select the option you prefer in both the Software Keyboards section and the Hardware Keyboards section. The Words option causes VoiceOver to read words to you but not individual characters you type, such as the dollar sign ($). The Characters and Words option causes VoiceOver to read both the individual characters as you type them and each word as you complete it. Press the Home button or swipe up from the bottom of the screen (iPad models without a Home button) to return to the Home screen. You can use the Accessibility Shortcut setting to help you more quickly turn the VoiceOver, Zoom, Switch Control, Grayscale, AssistiveTouch, or Invert Colors features on and off. In the Accessibility screen, tap Accessibility Shortcut (near the very bottom of the screen). In the screen that appears, choose what you want three presses of the Home button (or top button, for iPads without a Home button) to activate. Now three presses with a single finger on the Home button or top button (depending on your iPad model) provide you with the option you selected wherever you go in iPad. How to use VoiceOver on an iPad After VoiceOver is turned on (see preceding section), you need to figure out how to use it. I won’t kid you — using it is awkward at first, but you’ll get the hang of it. Here are the main onscreen gestures you should know how to use: Tap an item to select it. VoiceOver then speaks its name. Double-tap the selected item. This action activates the item. Flick three fingers. It takes three fingers to scroll around a page with VoiceOver turned on. The first time my iPad locked when using VoiceOver, I had no idea how to unlock it. Luckily, I found the answer by consulting Apple’s support site from a computer. If your iPad has a Home button, just press it to unlock — simple. However, if your iPad doesn’t have a Home button, you need to look at your iPad (for Face ID to recognize you) and then slowly move your finger up from the bottom of the screen until you hear two tones, which indicate that your screen is unlocked. If tapping with two or three fingers is difficult, try tapping with one finger from one hand and one or two from the other. When double- or triple-tapping, you have to perform these gestures as quickly and as precisely as you can for them to work. The table below provides additional gestures to help you use VoiceOver. If you want to use this feature often, I recommend the VoiceOver section of the iPad online User Guide, which goes into great detail about using VoiceOver. You can find the User Guide on Apple Support's iPad Manuals page. Once you're on the iPad Manuals page, just click the model of iPad or the version of iPad OS you have to read its manual. You can also get an Apple Books version of the manual through the Apple Books app in its Book Store. VoiceOver Gestures Gesture Effect Flick right or left Select the next or preceding item Tap with two fingers Stop or continue speaking the current item Flick two fingers up Read everything from the top of the screen Flick two fingers down Read everything from the current position Flick three fingers up or down Scroll one page at a time Flick three fingers right or left Go to the next or preceding page Tap three fingers Speak the scroll status (for example, line 20 of 100) Flick four fingers up or down Go to the first or last element on a page Flick four fingers right or left Go to the next or preceding section (as on a web page) Check out some of the settings for VoiceOver, including a choice for Braille, Language Rotor for making language choices, the ability to navigate images, and a setting to have iPad speak notifications. How to change additional vision settings Several Vision features are simple settings that you can turn on or off after you tap Settings, tap Accessibility: Zoom: The Zoom feature enlarges the contents displayed on the iPad screen when you double-tap the screen with three fingers. The Zoom feature works almost everywhere in iPad: in Photos, on web pages, on your Home screens, in your Mail, in Music, and in Videos. Give it a try! Spoken Content: Options here include the ability to have your iPad speak items you’ve selected or to hear the content of an entire screen and highlight content as it’s spoken. Display & Text Size: Includes such features as Color Filters (aids in case of color blindness) Reduce White Point (helps reduce the intensity of bright colors) Invert Colors (which reverses colors on your screen so that white backgrounds are black and black text is white): Classic Invert inverts all colors, and Smart Invert does not invert colors for items like images, multimedia, and some apps that may use darker color styles. The Invert Colors feature works well in some places and not so well in others. For example, in the Photos application, pictures appear almost as photo negatives (which is a really cool trick to try). Your Home screen image likewise looks a bit strange. And don’t even think of playing a video with this feature turned on! However, if you need help reading text, White on Black can be useful in several apps. Larger Text (under Accessibility tap Display & Text Size): If having larger text in such apps as Contacts, Mail, and Notes would be helpful to you, you can turn on the Larger Text feature and choose the text size that works best for you. Bold Text (under Accessibility tap Display & Text Size): Turning on this setting restarts your iPad (after asking you for permission to do so) and then causes text in various apps and in Settings to be bold. Button Shapes (under Accessibility tap Display & Text Size): This setting applies shapes to buttons so that they’re more easily distinguishable. For an example, check out the Accessibility button near the top of the screen after you enable Button Shapes by toggling its switch on. Turn it back off and notice the difference (shown in the figure below; the button name is underlined). Reduce Transparency (under Accessibility tap Display & Text Size): This setting helps increase legibility of text by reducing blurring and transparency effects that make up a good deal of the iPad user interface. Increase Contrast (under Accessibility tap Display & Text Size): Use this setting to set up backgrounds in some areas of the iPad and apps with greater contrast, which should improve visibility. On/Off Labels (under Accessibility tap Display & Text Size): If you have trouble making out colors and therefore find it hard to tell when a setting is on (green) or off (white), use this setting to add a circle to the right of a setting when it’s off and a white vertical line to a setting when it’s on. Reduce Motion (under Accessibility tap Motion): Tap this accessibility feature and then tap the on/off switch to turn off the parallax effect, which causes the background of your Home screens to appear to float as you move the iPad around.

Article / Updated 06-06-2023

You bought the TI-84 Plus C graphing calculator to help you do graphs, and help you it does. The points in the following list walk you through the steps to take to get your TI-84 Plus C to display a graph:

Article / Updated 03-21-2023

Apple’s iPad gets its features from a combination of hardware and its software operating system (called iPadOS; the term is short for iPad operating system). As of this writing, the most current version of the operating system is iPadOS 16. It’s helpful to understand which features the newest iPad models and iPadOS 16 bring to the table (all of which are covered in more detail throughout my book iPad For Seniors For Dummies, 2023-2024 Edition). Models and sizes of the latest iPads The iPad is currently available in various sizes, depending on the version you choose. Here are the five basic sizes, by iPad type (for price and memory capacity information, see the article What To Look for When Buying an iPad): iPad: There are two models of iPad. The ninth-generation model features a touchscreen that measures 10.2 inches diagonally and sports a super-fast 64-bit desktop-class A13 Bionic processor. The tenth-generation model takes the iPad up a notch with a touchscreen that measures 10.9 inches diagonally and boasts an even faster 64-bit desktop-class A14 Bionic processor. iPad Air: The fifth-generation iPad Air employs a touchscreen measuring 10.9 inches diagonally and features a powerful Apple M1 processor. iPad mini: The iPad mini 6’s screen measures 8.3 inches diagonally. This iPad uses a 64-bit A15 Bionic processor to do the behind-the-scenes work. iPad Pro: The two iPad Pro models are the fastest of the bunch. One's screen measures 11 inches diagonally, and the other's is 12.9 inches; they both come with blazing-fast M2 processors, which are the same processors used in many of Apple’s newest Mac desktop and laptop computers. Dimensions of devices are typically shown in the units of measurement commonly used in a region. This means, for example, that the basic tenth-generation iPad is shown on Apple’s U.S. site as being 9.79 inches (248.6 mm) high and 7.07 inches (179.5 mm) wide. In metric-system countries, both dimensions are given, but the order is reversed. When it comes to screen sizes, however, the dimensions are given in inches. Features of the latest iPads In addition to the features of previous iPads, the latest iPad models offer the following. Retina and Liquid Retina displays In addition to screen size, screen resolution has evolved so that Apple’s Retina and Liquid Retina displays, both of which support very high-resolution graphics, now appear across the line. The name derives from the concept that individual pixels on the screen are so small that they can’t be distinguished at normal viewing distance. Apple Pencil Originally designed exclusively for use with iPad Pro models, the Apple Pencil now works with all the latest iPad models. (Be sure to check which version of Apple Pencil will work with your iPad by visiting the Apple Pencil web page. Apple Pencil lets you draw and write on the screen with a familiar pencil-style tool rather than with your finger. The device contains a battery and sophisticated processing powers that make the experience of using it very much like (and sometimes better than) a traditional pencil. Third-party pencils and drawing tools exist, but Apple’s integration of Apple Pencil is remarkably smooth; the product has taken off quickly among graphic artists, illustrators, and designers. As other people have discovered its usability for marking up documents, it is becoming more and more common in business environments. Neural Engine The Neural Engine is a component of the processor in every iPad that focuses on handling specialized tasks related to artificial intelligence, image and speech processing, and more cool things. Touch ID This security feature is included on several iPad models. Sensors in the Home button (ninth-generation iPad) or top button (iPad Air, iPad mini, and tenth-generation iPad) allow you to train the iPad to recognize your fingerprint and grant you access with a finger press. Touch ID also allows you to use the Apple Pay feature to buy items without having to enter your payment information every time. Facial recognition Touch ID is replaced with Face ID on iPad models that don’t have a Home button. Using Face ID and the front-facing camera, your iPad unlocks when it recognizes your face. Barometric sensor On all iPad models, this sensor makes it possible for your iPad to sense air pressure around you. This feature is especially cool when you’re hiking a mountain, where the weather may change as you climb. Perhaps more to the point, the changes in barometric pressure can be sensed on a smaller scale so that elevation can be measured as you move normally. More keyboard options The iPad Pro has a full-size onscreen keyboard. Because the screen has more space, the top of the keyboard can contain extra commands for filling in passwords and using more advanced input techniques. Smart Connector for Smart Keyboard In addition to the onscreen keyboard, you can use a Smart Connector to hook up a Smart Keyboard, an external keyboard that makes getting complex work done much easier. Smart Connector is supported for all iPad models, with the exception of iPad mini. Live photos Using the 3D Touch feature, you can press a photo on the screen to make it play like a short video. The Camera app captures 1.5 seconds on either side of the moment when you capture the photo, so anything moving in the image you photographed, such as water flowing in a stream, seems to move when you press and hold the still photo. The iPadOS 16 update to the operating system adds many features, including (but definitely not limited to) the following: Stage Manager Stage Manager (supported for iPad Air fifth generation, all generations of iPad Pro 11-inch, and iPad Pro 12.9-inch third generation and later) is a new way to switch between apps and their windows on your iPad. Windows for the app you’re working in are in the center of the screen, while other apps’ windows are located on the left side, within easy reach. It’s a game-changer when working with multiple apps at once. Weather I shouldn’t be this excited about a weather app, but I’m not the only long-suffering iPad user who’s ecstatic that Apple has finally seen the light and made their iPhone Weather app available for iPadOS. Good things come to those who wait, I hear. New Mail features iPadOS 16 gives Mail a couple of much-needed new features that enable you to unsend an email and to schedule emails to be sent at a later time. Live text Live text lets you interact with text in images, and now with iPadOS 16, it works with videos, too. For example, you can select text from a paused video and copy it into a document. Or if the text is an address, you can copy it into Maps to find the location. Built-in apps have been updated iPadOS 16 provides performance enhancements and interface upgrades for all the apps that come preinstalled with it, bringing many into the realm of their desktop computer counterparts. Don’t need all the built-in apps? You can remove them from your Home screen. (Note that built-in apps take up very little of your iPhone’s storage space.) When you remove a built-in app from your Home screen, you aren't deleting it — you’re hiding it. And if you change your mind, you can easily add them back to your Home screen by searching for them in the App Store and tapping the Get button. These are but a very few of the improvements made to the latest version of iPadOS. I highly suggest visiting Apples iPadOS 16 web page to find out more.