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Study and conduct experiments in any and every branch of science that calls to you.","relatedArticles":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles?category=33756&offset=0&size=5"},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true},"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"}},"relatedCategoriesLoadedStatus":"success"},"listState":{"list":{"count":10,"total":1484,"items":[{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T16:10:28+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-08-11T17:50:06+00:00","timestamp":"2022-08-11T18:01:08+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"10 Ways to Live Sustainably","strippedTitle":"10 ways to live sustainably","slug":"ten-ways-to-live-sustainably","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn the details of how to help the environment immediately, including cutting back on energy and water use, reducing waste, and recycling.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Environmental science is all about finding ways to live more sustainably, which means using resources today in a way that maintains their supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t mean living without luxuries but rather being aware of your resource consumption and reducing unnecessary waste.\r\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Reduce household energy use.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Energy conservation is itself a source of energy. Here are several simple ways to reduce your household energy use:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Turn off appliances and lights that you’re not using.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Install energy-efficient appliances.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Use a programmable thermostat that lowers or raises the temperature when you’re not home.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Set your thermostat lower than usual in the winter and bundle up.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Open windows to allow a breeze instead of turning on the air conditioning.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Use an electric teakettle rather than a stovetop kettle to boil water.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs).</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Eat locally.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">A powerful way to live more sustainably is to eat locally. The convenience of supermarkets has changed how people think about food. You can stroll through aisles stocked with fruits, vegetables, and other products from all over the world any time of year. But these products consume huge amounts of fossil fuel energy to get from those global locations to your corner supermarket.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Dispose with disposables.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Previous generations didn’t dream of single-use razors, forks, cups, bags, and food storage containers, but these days, you can find a plastic version of almost any object and then throw that object away after you use it.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Many of the environmental health issues today stem from toxins released into the environment by trash. Even trash that’s properly disposed of, such as that in a landfill, requires careful monitoring to ensure that dangerous chemicals don’t enter the surrounding environment.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">When you make a purchase, consider the item’s life expectancy: How long can the item be used? Will it have more than one use? When you’re done with it, will it end up in the trash? Start investing in reusable products for the items you most often throw away.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Plant seeds.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Try growing your own food. Simply plant a few seeds in a corner of your yard or in a container on your porch or windowsill. You don’t need acres; a few square feet on a patio, along the driveway, or in a window box can provide enough space to grow edible herbs, fruits, and vegetables.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Recycle.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Recycle as much as possible! If your neighborhood or apartment complex doesn’t offer recycling pickup, either find a drop-off location or request the curbside service. Buying products labeled <i>post-consumer</i> lets companies know that recycling is the way to go!</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">For other items, such as CFLs, batteries, cellphones, and electronics, find an appropriate recycler. Be sure to ask electronics recyclers where these materials go for recycling and avoid companies that ship electronic waste overseas for unregulated “recycling” and salvage operations. <a href=\"http://www.goodwill.org\">Goodwill Industries International</a> is one place that accepts electronics for responsible recycling.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Resell and donate items.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Items that you no longer need can get an extended life through resale and donation. By extending the life of any product, you help reduce dependence on disposable or cheaply made single-use products that end up in landfills.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Try reselling clothing and children’s things through a secondhand or consignment retailer or consider donating them to a nonprofit resale organization (such as Goodwill) or charity organization (such as the Salvation Army or American Cancer Society) that will redistribute them to those in need.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Drink from the tap.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Dependence on bottled water has added more than a million tons of plastic to the waste stream every year. One reason people rely on bottled water is because they believe it’s safer and better tasting than tap water. But most municipal water supplies in the U.S. provide safe, clean, fresh water (and many bottled waters are just bottled from city water supplies anyway).</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">If you don’t like the flavor of your tap water, consider the one-time investment in a filtration system. If you like the convenience of bottled water, purchase refillable bottles and keep one in your fridge, one in your car, and one at the office. Encourage your employer to install filters and offer glasses or reusable bottles at work, too.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Save water.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">An easy way to live more sustainably is to conserve household water use. Consider installing water-efficient toilets or dual-flush toilets that let you choose whether to use a full flush (for solid waste) or half-flush (for liquid waste). Newer clothes washers can automatically sense the smallest level of water needed for each load.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Smaller changes, such as switching to water-saving shower heads and adding aerators to your sink faucets, are also effective ways to significantly reduce household water use.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">To conserve water outdoors, use landscaping adapted to your local environment. When buying plants, look for drought-tolerant species and varieties and be sure to plant them in proper soil and sun conditions to reduce their need for excess watering. Set up sprinkler systems so they don’t water the sidewalk, the driveway, and other paved, impermeable surfaces.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Rely less on your car.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Using fossil fuels to support one person in each car on the road is clearly no longer sustainable. Investigate mass transit options in your town or city, such as a bus system, a light rail train system, or carpool and vanpool services for commuters. When traveling close to home, walk or ride your bike.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Purchase fair-trade products.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">When you purchase items that are imported from all over the world — particularly coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, chocolate, and fruit — look for the <i>fair-trade</i> certification. This designation tells you that these items were grown using sustainable methods of agriculture and that local people are receiving fair prices for the goods they produce.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Items that don’t have the fair-trade certification may have been produced unsustainably and may be the product of exploitative labor practices that don’t benefit the local people.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ol>","description":"Environmental science is all about finding ways to live more sustainably, which means using resources today in a way that maintains their supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t mean living without luxuries but rather being aware of your resource consumption and reducing unnecessary waste.\r\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Reduce household energy use.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Energy conservation is itself a source of energy. Here are several simple ways to reduce your household energy use:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Turn off appliances and lights that you’re not using.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Install energy-efficient appliances.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Use a programmable thermostat that lowers or raises the temperature when you’re not home.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Set your thermostat lower than usual in the winter and bundle up.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Open windows to allow a breeze instead of turning on the air conditioning.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Use an electric teakettle rather than a stovetop kettle to boil water.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs).</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Eat locally.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">A powerful way to live more sustainably is to eat locally. The convenience of supermarkets has changed how people think about food. You can stroll through aisles stocked with fruits, vegetables, and other products from all over the world any time of year. But these products consume huge amounts of fossil fuel energy to get from those global locations to your corner supermarket.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Dispose with disposables.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Previous generations didn’t dream of single-use razors, forks, cups, bags, and food storage containers, but these days, you can find a plastic version of almost any object and then throw that object away after you use it.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Many of the environmental health issues today stem from toxins released into the environment by trash. Even trash that’s properly disposed of, such as that in a landfill, requires careful monitoring to ensure that dangerous chemicals don’t enter the surrounding environment.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">When you make a purchase, consider the item’s life expectancy: How long can the item be used? Will it have more than one use? When you’re done with it, will it end up in the trash? Start investing in reusable products for the items you most often throw away.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Plant seeds.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Try growing your own food. Simply plant a few seeds in a corner of your yard or in a container on your porch or windowsill. You don’t need acres; a few square feet on a patio, along the driveway, or in a window box can provide enough space to grow edible herbs, fruits, and vegetables.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Recycle.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Recycle as much as possible! If your neighborhood or apartment complex doesn’t offer recycling pickup, either find a drop-off location or request the curbside service. Buying products labeled <i>post-consumer</i> lets companies know that recycling is the way to go!</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">For other items, such as CFLs, batteries, cellphones, and electronics, find an appropriate recycler. Be sure to ask electronics recyclers where these materials go for recycling and avoid companies that ship electronic waste overseas for unregulated “recycling” and salvage operations. <a href=\"http://www.goodwill.org\">Goodwill Industries International</a> is one place that accepts electronics for responsible recycling.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Resell and donate items.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Items that you no longer need can get an extended life through resale and donation. By extending the life of any product, you help reduce dependence on disposable or cheaply made single-use products that end up in landfills.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Try reselling clothing and children’s things through a secondhand or consignment retailer or consider donating them to a nonprofit resale organization (such as Goodwill) or charity organization (such as the Salvation Army or American Cancer Society) that will redistribute them to those in need.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Drink from the tap.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Dependence on bottled water has added more than a million tons of plastic to the waste stream every year. One reason people rely on bottled water is because they believe it’s safer and better tasting than tap water. But most municipal water supplies in the U.S. provide safe, clean, fresh water (and many bottled waters are just bottled from city water supplies anyway).</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">If you don’t like the flavor of your tap water, consider the one-time investment in a filtration system. If you like the convenience of bottled water, purchase refillable bottles and keep one in your fridge, one in your car, and one at the office. Encourage your employer to install filters and offer glasses or reusable bottles at work, too.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Save water.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">An easy way to live more sustainably is to conserve household water use. Consider installing water-efficient toilets or dual-flush toilets that let you choose whether to use a full flush (for solid waste) or half-flush (for liquid waste). Newer clothes washers can automatically sense the smallest level of water needed for each load.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Smaller changes, such as switching to water-saving shower heads and adding aerators to your sink faucets, are also effective ways to significantly reduce household water use.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">To conserve water outdoors, use landscaping adapted to your local environment. When buying plants, look for drought-tolerant species and varieties and be sure to plant them in proper soil and sun conditions to reduce their need for excess watering. Set up sprinkler systems so they don’t water the sidewalk, the driveway, and other paved, impermeable surfaces.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Rely less on your car.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Using fossil fuels to support one person in each car on the road is clearly no longer sustainable. Investigate mass transit options in your town or city, such as a bus system, a light rail train system, or carpool and vanpool services for commuters. When traveling close to home, walk or ride your bike.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Purchase fair-trade products.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">When you purchase items that are imported from all over the world — particularly coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, chocolate, and fruit — look for the <i>fair-trade</i> certification. This designation tells you that these items were grown using sustainable methods of agriculture and that local people are receiving fair prices for the goods they produce.</p>\r\n<p class=\"child-para\">Items that don’t have the fair-trade certification may have been produced unsustainably and may be the product of exploitative labor practices that don’t benefit the local people.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ol>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9804,"name":"Alecia M. Spooner","slug":"alecia-m-spooner","description":" <p><b>Alecia M. Spooner</b> has been teaching at the college level for more than 15 years. She currently teaches at Seattle Central College, where she is Professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences. Alecia teaches earth science courses that are accessible and engaging, while stressing scientific literacy and critical thinking. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9804"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":208293,"title":"Environmental Science For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"environmental-science-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208293"}},{"articleId":175597,"title":"Long-Term Impact of Key Environmental Legislation in the U.S.","slug":"long-term-impact-of-key-environmental-legislation-in-the-u-s","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175597"}},{"articleId":175590,"title":"How to Characterize a Population of Living Things","slug":"how-to-characterize-a-population-of-living-things","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175590"}},{"articleId":175589,"title":"What Defines an Ecosystem?","slug":"what-defines-an-ecosystem","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175589"}},{"articleId":173106,"title":"How Biological Communities Work Together","slug":"how-biological-communities-work-together","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/173106"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":292097,"title":"Find New Ways to Go Green this Earth Day","slug":"this-earth-day-find-new-ways-to-go-green","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/292097"}},{"articleId":291362,"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/291362"}},{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282177,"slug":"environmental-science-for-dummies","isbn":"9781118167144","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1118167147-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/environmental-science-for-dummies-cover-9781118167144-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Environmental Science For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<b data-author-id=\"34881\">Alecia M. Spooner</b> teaches Earth and Environmental Sciences at a community college and enjoys developing active-learning science curriculums for adults. Alecia is also the author of <i>Geology For Dummies</i>.","authors":[{"authorId":34881,"name":"Alecia M. Spooner","slug":"alecia-m-spooner","description":" <p><b>Alecia M. Spooner</b> has been teaching at the college level for more than 15 years. She currently teaches at Seattle Central College, where she is Professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences. Alecia teaches earth science courses that are accessible and engaging, while stressing scientific literacy and critical thinking. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34881"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781118167144&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62f543e487383\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781118167144&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62f543e487bcf\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Solve","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-08-11T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":172757},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T21:44:49+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-08-10T18:50:13+00:00","timestamp":"2022-08-11T00:01:11+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"},"slug":"biology","categoryId":33760}],"title":"Important Parts of Eukaryotic Cells","strippedTitle":"important parts of eukaryotic cells","slug":"important-parts-of-eukaryotic-cells","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about the important parts of eukaryotic cells, including the plasma membrane, the nucleus, mitochondria, and more.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"All eukaryotic cells have organelles, a nucleus, and many internal membranes. These components divide the eukaryotic cell into sections, with each specializing in different functions. Each function is vital to the cell's life.\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>plasma membrane</i> is made of phospholipids and protein and serves as the selective boundary of the cell.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>nucleus</i> is surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores. The nucleus stores and protects the DNA of the cell.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>endomembrane system</i> consists of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and vesicles. It makes lipids, membrane proteins, and exported proteins and then “addresses” them and ships them where they need to go.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><i>Mitochondria</i> are surrounded by two membranes and have their own DNA and ribosomes. They transfer energy from food molecules to ATP.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><i>Chloroplasts</i> are surrounded by two membranes, contain thylakoids, and have their own DNA and protein. They transform energy from the sun and CO2 from atmosphere into food molecules (sugars).</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>cytoskeleton</i> is a network of proteins: actin microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Cytoskeletal proteins support the structure of the cell, help with cell division, and control cellular movements.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>","description":"All eukaryotic cells have organelles, a nucleus, and many internal membranes. These components divide the eukaryotic cell into sections, with each specializing in different functions. Each function is vital to the cell's life.\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>plasma membrane</i> is made of phospholipids and protein and serves as the selective boundary of the cell.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>nucleus</i> is surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores. The nucleus stores and protects the DNA of the cell.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>endomembrane system</i> consists of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and vesicles. It makes lipids, membrane proteins, and exported proteins and then “addresses” them and ships them where they need to go.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><i>Mitochondria</i> are surrounded by two membranes and have their own DNA and ribosomes. They transfer energy from food molecules to ATP.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><i>Chloroplasts</i> are surrounded by two membranes, contain thylakoids, and have their own DNA and protein. They transform energy from the sun and CO2 from atmosphere into food molecules (sugars).</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">The <i>cytoskeleton</i> is a network of proteins: actin microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Cytoskeletal proteins support the structure of the cell, help with cell division, and control cellular movements.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz, PhD</b> is a Biology instructor at Everett Community College. As a member of the North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership, she worked to develop science curricula that are in alignment with research on human learning. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33760,"title":"Biology","slug":"biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":270004,"title":"Your Body, Your Cells: Eukaryotic Cells","slug":"your-body-your-cells-eukaryotic-cells","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/270004"}},{"articleId":269999,"title":"How to Use Recombinant DNA Technology to Solve Problems","slug":"how-to-use-recombinant-dna-technology-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269999"}},{"articleId":269996,"title":"Recombinant DNA Technology","slug":"recombinant-dna-technology","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269996"}},{"articleId":269993,"title":"Gene Expression in Bacteria","slug":"gene-expression-in-bacteria","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269993"}},{"articleId":269962,"title":"Metabolic Pathways","slug":"metabolic-pathways","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269962"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;biology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62f446c757727\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;biology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62f446c75804e\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-08-10T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":194017},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2020-04-10T23:31:59+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-08-10T18:47:46+00:00","timestamp":"2022-08-11T00:01:11+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"},"slug":"biology","categoryId":33760}],"title":"Your Body, Your Cells: Eukaryotic Cells","strippedTitle":"your body, your cells: eukaryotic cells","slug":"your-body-your-cells-eukaryotic-cells","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn what makes a eukaryotic cell, as well as the differences among these cells in plants, fungi, animals, and protists.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"The <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/biology/molecular-cell-biology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">eukaryotic cells</a> of animals, plants, fungi, and microscopic creatures called protists have many similarities in structure and function. They have the structures common to all cells: a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">All eukaryotic organisms contain cells that have a nucleus, organelles, and many internal membranes.</p>\r\nWith all the wonderful diversity of life on Earth, however, you’re probably not surprised to discover that eukaryotic cells have many differences. By comparing the structure of a typical animal cell with that of a typical plant cell, you can see some of the differences among eukaryotic cells.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Cell walls, additional reinforcing layers outside the plasma membrane, are present in the cells of plants, fungi, and some protists, but not in animal cells.</li>\r\n \t<li>Chloroplasts, which are needed for photosynthesis, are found in the cells of plants and algae, but not animals.</li>\r\n \t<li>Large, central vacuoles, which contain fluid and are separated from the cytoplasm with a membrane, are found in the cells of plants and algae, but not animals.</li>\r\n \t<li>Centrioles, small protein structures that appear during cell division, are found in the cells of animals, but not plants.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269963\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269963\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-animal-cell.jpg\" alt=\"animal cell\" width=\"556\" height=\"399\" /> Structures in a typical animal cell[/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269986\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269986\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-plant-cell.jpg\" alt=\"plant cell\" width=\"556\" height=\"510\" /> Structures in a typical plant cell[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Home office: The nucleus</h2>\r\nThe nucleus houses and protects the cell’s DNA, which contains all of the instructions necessary for the cell to function. The DNA is like a set of blueprints for the cell, so you can think of the nucleus as the office where the blueprints are kept. If information from the blueprints is required, the information is copied into RNA molecules and moved out of the nucleus. The DNA plans stay safely locked away.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">The boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope, which is made of two phospholipid bilayers similar to those that make up the plasma membrane.</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269985\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269985\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-nucleus.jpg\" alt=\"The nucleus.\" width=\"556\" height=\"302\" /> The nucleus[/caption]\r\n\r\nThe phospholipids bilayers of the nuclear envelope are supported by a scaffold of protein cables, called the nuclear lamina, on the inner surface of the nucleus. The nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The structures within the nucleus are\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>DNA in the form of chromosomes or chromatin: When a cell is about to divide to make a copy of itself, it copies its DNA and bundles the DNA up tightly so that the cell can move the DNA around more easily. The tightly bundled DNA molecules are visible through a microscope as little structures in the nucleus called Most of the time, however, when a cell is just functioning and not about to divide, the DNA is very loose within the nucleus, like a bunch of long, very thin spaghetti noodles. When the DNA is in this form, it is called chromatin.</li>\r\n \t<li>Nucleoli where ribosomal subunits are made: Information in the DNA needs to be read in order to make the small and large subunits needed to build ribosomes. The cell builds the ribosomal subunits in areas of the nucleus called nucleoli. Then, the cell ships the subunits out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where they join together for protein synthesis. When you stain cells and look at them under the microscope, nucleoli look like large spots within the nucleus.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nThe DNA plans for the cell are kept in the nucleus, but most of the activity of the cell occurs in the cytoplasm. Because the DNA is separate from the rest of the cell, a lot of traffic crosses back and forth between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Molecules enter and exit the nucleus through small holes, called <em>nuclear pores</em>, that pass through the nuclear membrane. Groups of proteins organize into little rings that penetrate through the nuclear envelope to form the nuclear pores. The traffic in and out of the nuclear pores include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>RNA molecules and ribosomal subunits made in the nucleus must exit to the cytoplasm.</li>\r\n \t<li>Proteins made in the cytoplasm but needed for certain processes, such as copying the DNA, must cross into the nucleus.</li>\r\n \t<li>Nucleotides, building blocks for DNA and RNA, must cross into the nucleus so that the cell can make new DNA and RNA molecules.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>ATP</strong> molecules that provide energy for processes inside the nucleus like assembly of DNA molecules.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Traffic through the nuclear pores is controlled by proteins called importins and exportins. Proteins that are to be moved into or out of the nucleus have specific chemical tags on them that act like zip codes, telling the importins and exportins which way to move the protein with the tag. The movement of molecules into and out of the cell requires the input of energy from the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Post office: The endomembrane system</h2>\r\nThe endomembrane system, shown in the following figure, of the eukaryotic cell constructs proteins and lipids and then ships them where they need to go. Because this system is like a large package-shipping company, you can think of it as the post office of the cell.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269970\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269970\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-endomembrane-system.jpg\" alt=\"The endomembrane system.\" width=\"556\" height=\"485\" /> The endomembrane system[/caption]\r\n\r\nThe endomembrane system has several components:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The endoplasmic reticulum is a set of folded membranes that begins at the nucleus and extends into the cytoplasm. It begins with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope and then twists back and forth like switchbacks on a steep mountain trail. The endoplasmic reticulum comes in two types:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is called rough because it’s studded with ribosomes. Ribosomes that begin to make a protein that has a special destination, such as a particular organelle or membrane, will attach themselves to the rough endoplasmic reticulum while they make the protein. As the protein is made, it’s pushed into the middle of the rough ER, which is called the Once inside the lumen, the protein is folded and tagged with carbohydrates. It will then get pushed into a little membrane bubble, called a <em>transport vesicle</em>, to travel to the Golgi apparatus for further processing.</li>\r\n \t<li>Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) doesn’t have attached ribosomes. It makes lipids — for example, phospholipids for cell membranes. Lipids from the SER may also travel to the Golgi apparatus.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>The Golgi apparatus looks a little bit like a stack of pancakes because it’s made of a stack of flattened membrane sacs, called <em>cisternae</em>. The side of the stack closest to the nucleus is called the cis face of the Golgi, whereas the side farthest from the nucleus is called the trans Molecules arrive at the cis face of the Golgi and incorporate into the nearest cisterna. Lipids become part of the membrane itself, while proteins get pushed into the middle, or lumen, of the cisterna. The Golgi apparatus constantly changes as new cisternae form at the cis face, and old cisternae are removed from the trans face. As molecules make their journey through this flowing system, they’re modified and marked with chemical tags, so that they’ll get shipped to their proper destination.</li>\r\n \t<li>Vesicles are little bubbles of membrane in the cell and come in several types:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Transport vesicles carry molecules around the cell. They’re like the large envelopes that you put your letters in. Transport vesicles travel from the ER to the Golgi and then to the plasma membrane to bring molecules where they need to go. They travel by gliding along protein cables that are part of the cytoskeleton.</li>\r\n \t<li>Lysosomes are the garbage disposals of the cell. They contain digestive enzymes that can break down large molecules, organelles, and even bacterial cells.</li>\r\n \t<li>Secretory vesicles bring materials to the plasma membrane so that the cell can release, or secrete, the materials.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>Peroxisomes are small organelles encircled by a single membrane. Often, they help break down lipids, such as fatty acids. Also, depending on the type of cell they are in, peroxisomes may be specialists in breaking down particular molecules. For example, peroxisomes in liver cells break down toxins, such as the ethanol from alcoholic beverages. In plants cells, glyoxisomes, a special kind of peroxisome, help convert stored oils into molecules that plants can easily use for energy.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Altogether, the endomembrane system works as a sophisticated manufacturing, processing, and shipping plant. This system is particularly important in specialized cells that make lots of a particular protein and then ship them out to other cells. These types of cells actually have more endoplasmic reticulum than other cells so that they can efficiently produce and export large amounts of protein.</p>\r\nAs an example of how the endomembrane system functions, follow the pathway of synthesis and transport for an exported protein:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>A ribosome begins to build a protein, such as insulin, that will be exported from the cell.\r\nAt the beginning of the protein is a recognizable marker that causes the ribosome to dock at the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.</li>\r\n \t<li>The ribosome continues to make the protein, and the protein is pushed into the lumen of the RER.\r\nInside the lumen, the protein folds up, and carbohydrates are attached to it.</li>\r\n \t<li>The protein is pushed into the membrane of the RER, which pinches around and seals to form a vesicle, and the vesicle carries the protein from the RER to the Golgi.</li>\r\n \t<li>The vesicle fuses with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus, and the protein is delivered to the lumen of the Golgi, where the protein is modified.</li>\r\n \t<li>The protein eventually leaves in a vesicle formed at the trans face, which travels to the plasma membrane, fuses with the membrane, and releases the protein to the outside of the cell.</li>\r\n</ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >The fireplace: Mitochondria</h2>\r\nThe mitochondrion (see the following figure) is the organelle where eukaryotes extract energy from their food by cellular respiration.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Mitochondria are like the power plants of the cell because they transfer energy from food to ATP. ATP is an easy form of energy for cells to use, so mitochondria help cells get usable energy.</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269983\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269983\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-mitochondrion.jpg\" alt=\"The mitochondrion.\" width=\"556\" height=\"297\" /> The mitochondrion[/caption]\r\n\r\nPart of the process that extracts the energy from food requires a membrane, so mitochondria have lots of internal folded membrane to give them more area to run this process. Mitochondria actually have two membranes, the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The inner membrane is the one that is folded back and forth to create more area for energy extraction; the folds of this membrane are called cristae. The outer membrane separates the interior of the mitochondrion from the cytoplasm of the cell.\r\n\r\nThe two membranes of the mitochondrion create different compartments within the mitochondrion:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The space between the two membranes of the mitochondrion is the intermembrane space.</li>\r\n \t<li>The inside of the mitochondrion is the</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Mitochondria also contain ribosomes for protein synthesis and a small, circular piece of DNA that contains the code for some mitochondrial proteins. The ribosomes and DNA of mitochondria resemble those found in bacterial cells.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >In the kitchen: Chloroplasts</h2>\r\nChloroplasts, shown in the following figure, are the place where eukaryotes make food molecules by the process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are found in the cells of plants and algae.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269965\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269965\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-chloroplast.jpg\" alt=\"The chloroplast.\" width=\"556\" height=\"411\" /> The chloroplast[/caption]\r\n\r\nLike mitochondria, chloroplasts have two membranes, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. In addition, they have little sacs of membranes called thylakoids stacked up in towers called grana.\r\n\r\nThe multiple membranes of the chloroplast divide it into several different spaces:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The intermembrane space is between the inner and outer membranes.</li>\r\n \t<li>The central, fluid-filled part of the chloroplast is called the</li>\r\n \t<li>The interior of the thylakoid is another fluid-filled space.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain their own ribosomes for protein synthesis and a small, circular piece of DNA that contains the code for some chloroplast proteins.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >Scaffolding and railroad tracks: The cytoskeleton</h2>\r\nThe structure and function of cells are supported by a network of protein cables called the cytoskeleton, shown in the following figure. These proteins underlie membranes, giving them shape and support, much like scaffolding can support a building. Cytoskeletal proteins run like tracks through cells, enabling the movement of vesicles and organelles like trains on a railroad track. When cells swim by flicking whip-like extensions called cilia and eukaryotic flagella, they’re using cytoskeletal proteins. In fact, you use cytoskeletal proteins literally every time you move a muscle.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269967\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269967\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-cytoskeleton.jpg\" alt=\"The cytoskeleton.\" width=\"556\" height=\"332\" /> The cytoskeleton[/caption]\r\n\r\nCytoskeletal proteins come in three main types, with each one playing a different role in cells:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Microfilaments are made of the protein Microfilaments are the proteins that make muscle cells contract, help pinch animal cells in two during cell division, allow cells like amoebae to crawl, and act as railroad tracks for organelles in some types of cells.</li>\r\n \t<li>Microtubules are made of the protein tubulin. Microtubules are the proteins inside of cilia and flagella. They move chromosomes during cell division and act as railroad tracks for the movement of vesicles and some organelles.</li>\r\n \t<li>Intermediate filaments are made of various proteins. They often act as reinforcing proteins. For example, the protein <em>lamin</em> that strengthens the nuclear membrane is an intermediate filament. Likewise, the keratin that strengthens your skin cells and makes them resistant to damage is an intermediate filament.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tip\">You can easily mix up the words “microtubules” and “microfilaments.” Remember that “microtubules” are made of “tubul-in,” and they’re found in the “tube-shaped” cilia and flagella. (Okay, I’m stretching it on that last bit, but if it helps to remember it. . . .)</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Motor proteins</h3>\r\nActin microfilaments and microtubules are long, cable-like proteins. They partner with motor proteins, proteins that use ATP to “walk” along the cables by repeatedly binding, changing shape, and releasing. Thus, the motor proteins use chemical energy to do cellular work in the form of movement. Several motor proteins work with microfilaments and microtubules:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Myosin often acts as a partner to actin. For example, when myosin walks along actin microfilaments in muscle cells, it causes the actin microfilament to slide. The sliding of actin microfilaments is what causes muscle contraction. Myosin also attaches to cellular components, such as chloroplasts in plant cells, and then walks along microfilaments. The movement of the motor proteins causes the cellular components to flow around the cell in a process called cytoplasmic streaming.</li>\r\n \t<li>Dynein partners with microtubules inside of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. When dynein walks along microtubules on one side of a cilium or flagellum, it causes the microtubules to bend. The bending of different parts of cilia and flagella makes them flick back and forth like little whips.</li>\r\n \t<li>Kinesin is another partner with microtubules. One end of the kinesin molecule attaches to vesicles, while the other end walks along the microtubules. The movement of kinesin causes the vesicles to slide along the microtubules like freight cars on a railroad track.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h3>Cilia and flagella</h3>\r\nCilia and flagella are essentially the same structure, but cilia are typically shorter and more numerous on the surface of the cell whereas flagella are typically longer in length and fewer in number. Cilia are found on cells that make up the surfaces of tissues, such as cells in the respiratory and genital tracts of humans, where the cilia beat to move fluid and materials along the surface. For example, in the human respiratory tract, the beating of cilia moves mucus upward where you can cough it out of the body. Some cells, such as microscopic protists and sperm cells, swim using cilia and flagella.\r\n\r\nThe internal structure of cilia and flagella is distinctive. If you cut a cilium or a flagellum crosswise and look at the circular end with an electron microscope, you’ll see the same pattern of microtubules in in both cilia and flagella, shown in the following figure. The microtubules are grouped in pairs, called doublets, that are similar to two drinking straws laid tightly together side by side.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">The microtubules appear in a 9+2 arrangement, where nine pairs of microtubules (nine doublets) are arranged around the outside of the circle, while one pair of microtubules is in the center of the circle.</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269966\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269966\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-cilia-flagella.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of cilia and flagella.\" width=\"556\" height=\"341\" /> Structure of cilia and flagella[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >Rebar and concrete: Cell walls and extracellular matrices</h2>\r\nThe plasma membrane is the selective boundary for all cells that chooses what enters and exits the cell. However, most cells have additional layers outside of the plasma membrane. These extracellular layers provide additional strength to cells and may attach cells to neighboring cells in multicellular organisms. Typically, these layers are composed of long cables of carbohydrates or proteins embedded in a sticky matrix. The long, cable-like molecules work like rebar in concrete to create a strong substance. Two main types of extracellular layers support eukaryotic cells:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Cell walls are extra reinforcing layers that help protect the cell from bursting. Among eukaryotes, cell walls appear around the cells of plants, fungi, and many protists.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The primary cell walls of plants and algae are made of cellulose. If the plant is a woody plant, lignin is also present. (<em>Lignin</em> is a complex molecule that hardens the cell walls of plants.)</li>\r\n \t<li>Fungal cell walls are made of chitin.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>The layer around animal cells is the extracellular matrix (ECM), shown in the following figure. This layer is made of long proteins, such as collagen, embedded in a polysaccharide gel. The ECM supports animal cells and helps bind them together. Animal cells actually attach themselves to the ECM via proteins, called integrins, that are embedded in the plasma membrane. The integrins bind to the actin microfilaments inside the cell and to ECM proteins called fibronectins that are outside the cell.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269972\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269972\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-extracellular-matrix.jpg\" alt=\"The extracellular matrix of animal cells.\" width=\"556\" height=\"483\" /> The extracellular matrix of animal cells[/caption]","description":"The <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/biology/molecular-cell-biology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">eukaryotic cells</a> of animals, plants, fungi, and microscopic creatures called protists have many similarities in structure and function. They have the structures common to all cells: a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">All eukaryotic organisms contain cells that have a nucleus, organelles, and many internal membranes.</p>\r\nWith all the wonderful diversity of life on Earth, however, you’re probably not surprised to discover that eukaryotic cells have many differences. By comparing the structure of a typical animal cell with that of a typical plant cell, you can see some of the differences among eukaryotic cells.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Cell walls, additional reinforcing layers outside the plasma membrane, are present in the cells of plants, fungi, and some protists, but not in animal cells.</li>\r\n \t<li>Chloroplasts, which are needed for photosynthesis, are found in the cells of plants and algae, but not animals.</li>\r\n \t<li>Large, central vacuoles, which contain fluid and are separated from the cytoplasm with a membrane, are found in the cells of plants and algae, but not animals.</li>\r\n \t<li>Centrioles, small protein structures that appear during cell division, are found in the cells of animals, but not plants.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269963\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269963\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-animal-cell.jpg\" alt=\"animal cell\" width=\"556\" height=\"399\" /> Structures in a typical animal cell[/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269986\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269986\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-plant-cell.jpg\" alt=\"plant cell\" width=\"556\" height=\"510\" /> Structures in a typical plant cell[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Home office: The nucleus</h2>\r\nThe nucleus houses and protects the cell’s DNA, which contains all of the instructions necessary for the cell to function. The DNA is like a set of blueprints for the cell, so you can think of the nucleus as the office where the blueprints are kept. If information from the blueprints is required, the information is copied into RNA molecules and moved out of the nucleus. The DNA plans stay safely locked away.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">The boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope, which is made of two phospholipid bilayers similar to those that make up the plasma membrane.</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269985\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269985\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-nucleus.jpg\" alt=\"The nucleus.\" width=\"556\" height=\"302\" /> The nucleus[/caption]\r\n\r\nThe phospholipids bilayers of the nuclear envelope are supported by a scaffold of protein cables, called the nuclear lamina, on the inner surface of the nucleus. The nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The structures within the nucleus are\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>DNA in the form of chromosomes or chromatin: When a cell is about to divide to make a copy of itself, it copies its DNA and bundles the DNA up tightly so that the cell can move the DNA around more easily. The tightly bundled DNA molecules are visible through a microscope as little structures in the nucleus called Most of the time, however, when a cell is just functioning and not about to divide, the DNA is very loose within the nucleus, like a bunch of long, very thin spaghetti noodles. When the DNA is in this form, it is called chromatin.</li>\r\n \t<li>Nucleoli where ribosomal subunits are made: Information in the DNA needs to be read in order to make the small and large subunits needed to build ribosomes. The cell builds the ribosomal subunits in areas of the nucleus called nucleoli. Then, the cell ships the subunits out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where they join together for protein synthesis. When you stain cells and look at them under the microscope, nucleoli look like large spots within the nucleus.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nThe DNA plans for the cell are kept in the nucleus, but most of the activity of the cell occurs in the cytoplasm. Because the DNA is separate from the rest of the cell, a lot of traffic crosses back and forth between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Molecules enter and exit the nucleus through small holes, called <em>nuclear pores</em>, that pass through the nuclear membrane. Groups of proteins organize into little rings that penetrate through the nuclear envelope to form the nuclear pores. The traffic in and out of the nuclear pores include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>RNA molecules and ribosomal subunits made in the nucleus must exit to the cytoplasm.</li>\r\n \t<li>Proteins made in the cytoplasm but needed for certain processes, such as copying the DNA, must cross into the nucleus.</li>\r\n \t<li>Nucleotides, building blocks for DNA and RNA, must cross into the nucleus so that the cell can make new DNA and RNA molecules.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>ATP</strong> molecules that provide energy for processes inside the nucleus like assembly of DNA molecules.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Traffic through the nuclear pores is controlled by proteins called importins and exportins. Proteins that are to be moved into or out of the nucleus have specific chemical tags on them that act like zip codes, telling the importins and exportins which way to move the protein with the tag. The movement of molecules into and out of the cell requires the input of energy from the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Post office: The endomembrane system</h2>\r\nThe endomembrane system, shown in the following figure, of the eukaryotic cell constructs proteins and lipids and then ships them where they need to go. Because this system is like a large package-shipping company, you can think of it as the post office of the cell.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269970\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269970\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-endomembrane-system.jpg\" alt=\"The endomembrane system.\" width=\"556\" height=\"485\" /> The endomembrane system[/caption]\r\n\r\nThe endomembrane system has several components:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The endoplasmic reticulum is a set of folded membranes that begins at the nucleus and extends into the cytoplasm. It begins with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope and then twists back and forth like switchbacks on a steep mountain trail. The endoplasmic reticulum comes in two types:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is called rough because it’s studded with ribosomes. Ribosomes that begin to make a protein that has a special destination, such as a particular organelle or membrane, will attach themselves to the rough endoplasmic reticulum while they make the protein. As the protein is made, it’s pushed into the middle of the rough ER, which is called the Once inside the lumen, the protein is folded and tagged with carbohydrates. It will then get pushed into a little membrane bubble, called a <em>transport vesicle</em>, to travel to the Golgi apparatus for further processing.</li>\r\n \t<li>Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) doesn’t have attached ribosomes. It makes lipids — for example, phospholipids for cell membranes. Lipids from the SER may also travel to the Golgi apparatus.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>The Golgi apparatus looks a little bit like a stack of pancakes because it’s made of a stack of flattened membrane sacs, called <em>cisternae</em>. The side of the stack closest to the nucleus is called the cis face of the Golgi, whereas the side farthest from the nucleus is called the trans Molecules arrive at the cis face of the Golgi and incorporate into the nearest cisterna. Lipids become part of the membrane itself, while proteins get pushed into the middle, or lumen, of the cisterna. The Golgi apparatus constantly changes as new cisternae form at the cis face, and old cisternae are removed from the trans face. As molecules make their journey through this flowing system, they’re modified and marked with chemical tags, so that they’ll get shipped to their proper destination.</li>\r\n \t<li>Vesicles are little bubbles of membrane in the cell and come in several types:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Transport vesicles carry molecules around the cell. They’re like the large envelopes that you put your letters in. Transport vesicles travel from the ER to the Golgi and then to the plasma membrane to bring molecules where they need to go. They travel by gliding along protein cables that are part of the cytoskeleton.</li>\r\n \t<li>Lysosomes are the garbage disposals of the cell. They contain digestive enzymes that can break down large molecules, organelles, and even bacterial cells.</li>\r\n \t<li>Secretory vesicles bring materials to the plasma membrane so that the cell can release, or secrete, the materials.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>Peroxisomes are small organelles encircled by a single membrane. Often, they help break down lipids, such as fatty acids. Also, depending on the type of cell they are in, peroxisomes may be specialists in breaking down particular molecules. For example, peroxisomes in liver cells break down toxins, such as the ethanol from alcoholic beverages. In plants cells, glyoxisomes, a special kind of peroxisome, help convert stored oils into molecules that plants can easily use for energy.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Altogether, the endomembrane system works as a sophisticated manufacturing, processing, and shipping plant. This system is particularly important in specialized cells that make lots of a particular protein and then ship them out to other cells. These types of cells actually have more endoplasmic reticulum than other cells so that they can efficiently produce and export large amounts of protein.</p>\r\nAs an example of how the endomembrane system functions, follow the pathway of synthesis and transport for an exported protein:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>A ribosome begins to build a protein, such as insulin, that will be exported from the cell.\r\nAt the beginning of the protein is a recognizable marker that causes the ribosome to dock at the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.</li>\r\n \t<li>The ribosome continues to make the protein, and the protein is pushed into the lumen of the RER.\r\nInside the lumen, the protein folds up, and carbohydrates are attached to it.</li>\r\n \t<li>The protein is pushed into the membrane of the RER, which pinches around and seals to form a vesicle, and the vesicle carries the protein from the RER to the Golgi.</li>\r\n \t<li>The vesicle fuses with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus, and the protein is delivered to the lumen of the Golgi, where the protein is modified.</li>\r\n \t<li>The protein eventually leaves in a vesicle formed at the trans face, which travels to the plasma membrane, fuses with the membrane, and releases the protein to the outside of the cell.</li>\r\n</ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >The fireplace: Mitochondria</h2>\r\nThe mitochondrion (see the following figure) is the organelle where eukaryotes extract energy from their food by cellular respiration.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Mitochondria are like the power plants of the cell because they transfer energy from food to ATP. ATP is an easy form of energy for cells to use, so mitochondria help cells get usable energy.</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269983\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269983\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-mitochondrion.jpg\" alt=\"The mitochondrion.\" width=\"556\" height=\"297\" /> The mitochondrion[/caption]\r\n\r\nPart of the process that extracts the energy from food requires a membrane, so mitochondria have lots of internal folded membrane to give them more area to run this process. Mitochondria actually have two membranes, the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The inner membrane is the one that is folded back and forth to create more area for energy extraction; the folds of this membrane are called cristae. The outer membrane separates the interior of the mitochondrion from the cytoplasm of the cell.\r\n\r\nThe two membranes of the mitochondrion create different compartments within the mitochondrion:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The space between the two membranes of the mitochondrion is the intermembrane space.</li>\r\n \t<li>The inside of the mitochondrion is the</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Mitochondria also contain ribosomes for protein synthesis and a small, circular piece of DNA that contains the code for some mitochondrial proteins. The ribosomes and DNA of mitochondria resemble those found in bacterial cells.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >In the kitchen: Chloroplasts</h2>\r\nChloroplasts, shown in the following figure, are the place where eukaryotes make food molecules by the process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are found in the cells of plants and algae.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269965\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269965\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-chloroplast.jpg\" alt=\"The chloroplast.\" width=\"556\" height=\"411\" /> The chloroplast[/caption]\r\n\r\nLike mitochondria, chloroplasts have two membranes, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. In addition, they have little sacs of membranes called thylakoids stacked up in towers called grana.\r\n\r\nThe multiple membranes of the chloroplast divide it into several different spaces:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The intermembrane space is between the inner and outer membranes.</li>\r\n \t<li>The central, fluid-filled part of the chloroplast is called the</li>\r\n \t<li>The interior of the thylakoid is another fluid-filled space.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain their own ribosomes for protein synthesis and a small, circular piece of DNA that contains the code for some chloroplast proteins.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >Scaffolding and railroad tracks: The cytoskeleton</h2>\r\nThe structure and function of cells are supported by a network of protein cables called the cytoskeleton, shown in the following figure. These proteins underlie membranes, giving them shape and support, much like scaffolding can support a building. Cytoskeletal proteins run like tracks through cells, enabling the movement of vesicles and organelles like trains on a railroad track. When cells swim by flicking whip-like extensions called cilia and eukaryotic flagella, they’re using cytoskeletal proteins. In fact, you use cytoskeletal proteins literally every time you move a muscle.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269967\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269967\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-cytoskeleton.jpg\" alt=\"The cytoskeleton.\" width=\"556\" height=\"332\" /> The cytoskeleton[/caption]\r\n\r\nCytoskeletal proteins come in three main types, with each one playing a different role in cells:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Microfilaments are made of the protein Microfilaments are the proteins that make muscle cells contract, help pinch animal cells in two during cell division, allow cells like amoebae to crawl, and act as railroad tracks for organelles in some types of cells.</li>\r\n \t<li>Microtubules are made of the protein tubulin. Microtubules are the proteins inside of cilia and flagella. They move chromosomes during cell division and act as railroad tracks for the movement of vesicles and some organelles.</li>\r\n \t<li>Intermediate filaments are made of various proteins. They often act as reinforcing proteins. For example, the protein <em>lamin</em> that strengthens the nuclear membrane is an intermediate filament. Likewise, the keratin that strengthens your skin cells and makes them resistant to damage is an intermediate filament.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tip\">You can easily mix up the words “microtubules” and “microfilaments.” Remember that “microtubules” are made of “tubul-in,” and they’re found in the “tube-shaped” cilia and flagella. (Okay, I’m stretching it on that last bit, but if it helps to remember it. . . .)</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Motor proteins</h3>\r\nActin microfilaments and microtubules are long, cable-like proteins. They partner with motor proteins, proteins that use ATP to “walk” along the cables by repeatedly binding, changing shape, and releasing. Thus, the motor proteins use chemical energy to do cellular work in the form of movement. Several motor proteins work with microfilaments and microtubules:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Myosin often acts as a partner to actin. For example, when myosin walks along actin microfilaments in muscle cells, it causes the actin microfilament to slide. The sliding of actin microfilaments is what causes muscle contraction. Myosin also attaches to cellular components, such as chloroplasts in plant cells, and then walks along microfilaments. The movement of the motor proteins causes the cellular components to flow around the cell in a process called cytoplasmic streaming.</li>\r\n \t<li>Dynein partners with microtubules inside of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. When dynein walks along microtubules on one side of a cilium or flagellum, it causes the microtubules to bend. The bending of different parts of cilia and flagella makes them flick back and forth like little whips.</li>\r\n \t<li>Kinesin is another partner with microtubules. One end of the kinesin molecule attaches to vesicles, while the other end walks along the microtubules. The movement of kinesin causes the vesicles to slide along the microtubules like freight cars on a railroad track.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h3>Cilia and flagella</h3>\r\nCilia and flagella are essentially the same structure, but cilia are typically shorter and more numerous on the surface of the cell whereas flagella are typically longer in length and fewer in number. Cilia are found on cells that make up the surfaces of tissues, such as cells in the respiratory and genital tracts of humans, where the cilia beat to move fluid and materials along the surface. For example, in the human respiratory tract, the beating of cilia moves mucus upward where you can cough it out of the body. Some cells, such as microscopic protists and sperm cells, swim using cilia and flagella.\r\n\r\nThe internal structure of cilia and flagella is distinctive. If you cut a cilium or a flagellum crosswise and look at the circular end with an electron microscope, you’ll see the same pattern of microtubules in in both cilia and flagella, shown in the following figure. The microtubules are grouped in pairs, called doublets, that are similar to two drinking straws laid tightly together side by side.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">The microtubules appear in a 9+2 arrangement, where nine pairs of microtubules (nine doublets) are arranged around the outside of the circle, while one pair of microtubules is in the center of the circle.</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269966\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269966\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-cilia-flagella.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of cilia and flagella.\" width=\"556\" height=\"341\" /> Structure of cilia and flagella[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >Rebar and concrete: Cell walls and extracellular matrices</h2>\r\nThe plasma membrane is the selective boundary for all cells that chooses what enters and exits the cell. However, most cells have additional layers outside of the plasma membrane. These extracellular layers provide additional strength to cells and may attach cells to neighboring cells in multicellular organisms. Typically, these layers are composed of long cables of carbohydrates or proteins embedded in a sticky matrix. The long, cable-like molecules work like rebar in concrete to create a strong substance. Two main types of extracellular layers support eukaryotic cells:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Cell walls are extra reinforcing layers that help protect the cell from bursting. Among eukaryotes, cell walls appear around the cells of plants, fungi, and many protists.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The primary cell walls of plants and algae are made of cellulose. If the plant is a woody plant, lignin is also present. (<em>Lignin</em> is a complex molecule that hardens the cell walls of plants.)</li>\r\n \t<li>Fungal cell walls are made of chitin.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>The layer around animal cells is the extracellular matrix (ECM), shown in the following figure. This layer is made of long proteins, such as collagen, embedded in a polysaccharide gel. The ECM supports animal cells and helps bind them together. Animal cells actually attach themselves to the ECM via proteins, called integrins, that are embedded in the plasma membrane. The integrins bind to the actin microfilaments inside the cell and to ECM proteins called fibronectins that are outside the cell.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269972\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-269972\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-extracellular-matrix.jpg\" alt=\"The extracellular matrix of animal cells.\" width=\"556\" height=\"483\" /> The extracellular matrix of animal cells[/caption]","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz, PhD</b> is a Biology instructor at Everett Community College. As a member of the North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership, she worked to develop science curricula that are in alignment with research on human learning. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33760,"title":"Biology","slug":"biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Home office: The nucleus","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Post office: The endomembrane system","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"The fireplace: Mitochondria","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"In the kitchen: Chloroplasts","target":"#tab4"},{"label":"Scaffolding and railroad tracks: The cytoskeleton","target":"#tab5"},{"label":"Rebar and concrete: Cell walls and extracellular matrices","target":"#tab6"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":269999,"title":"How to Use Recombinant DNA Technology to Solve Problems","slug":"how-to-use-recombinant-dna-technology-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269999"}},{"articleId":269996,"title":"Recombinant DNA Technology","slug":"recombinant-dna-technology","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269996"}},{"articleId":269993,"title":"Gene Expression in Bacteria","slug":"gene-expression-in-bacteria","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269993"}},{"articleId":269962,"title":"Metabolic Pathways","slug":"metabolic-pathways","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269962"}},{"articleId":207516,"title":"Molecular & Cell Biology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"molecular-cell-biology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207516"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":269999,"title":"How to Use Recombinant DNA Technology to Solve Problems","slug":"how-to-use-recombinant-dna-technology-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269999"}},{"articleId":269996,"title":"Recombinant DNA Technology","slug":"recombinant-dna-technology","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269996"}},{"articleId":269993,"title":"Gene Expression in Bacteria","slug":"gene-expression-in-bacteria","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269993"}},{"articleId":269962,"title":"Metabolic Pathways","slug":"metabolic-pathways","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269962"}},{"articleId":241857,"title":"10 Ways Biology Affects Your Life","slug":"10-ways-biology-affects-life","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/241857"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282404,"slug":"molecular-cell-biology-for-dummies-2nd-edition","isbn":"9781119620402","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119620406/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119620406/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119620406-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119620406/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119620406/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/molecular-and-cell-biology-for-dummies-2nd-edition-cover-9781119620402-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Molecular & Cell Biology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9201\">Rene Fester Kratz</b>, PhD</b> is a Biology instructor at Everett Community College. As a member of the North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership, she worked to develop science curricula that are in alignment with research on human learning.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz, PhD</b> is a Biology instructor at Everett Community College. As a member of the North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership, she worked to develop science curricula that are in alignment with research on human learning. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;biology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119620402&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62f446c741273\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;biology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119620402&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62f446c74213e\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-08-10T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":270004},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:56:20+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-08-04T19:08:50+00:00","timestamp":"2022-08-05T00:01:09+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"},"slug":"biology","categoryId":33760}],"title":"Biology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"biology for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"biology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Discover human biology, biological evolution, and biological reproduction and cell division in easy to understand terms.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Biology is the study of the living world. All living things share certain common properties: They are made of cells that contain DNA; they maintain order inside their cells and bodies; they regulate their systems; they respond to signals in the environment; they transfer energy between themselves and their environment; they grow and develop; they reproduce; they have traits that have evolved over time.","description":"Biology is the study of the living world. All living things share certain common properties: They are made of cells that contain DNA; they maintain order inside their cells and bodies; they regulate their systems; they respond to signals in the environment; they transfer energy between themselves and their environment; they grow and develop; they reproduce; they have traits that have evolved over time.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz, PhD</b> is a Biology instructor at Everett Community College. As a member of the North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership, she worked to develop science curricula that are in alignment with research on human learning. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33760,"title":"Biology","slug":"biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":241857,"title":"10 Ways Biology Affects Your Life","slug":"10-ways-biology-affects-life","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/241857"}},{"articleId":241854,"title":"10 Great Biology Discoveries","slug":"10-great-biology-discoveries","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/241854"}},{"articleId":241851,"title":"Plant Growth and Development: Sending Signals with Plant Hormones","slug":"plant-growth-development-sending-signals-plant-hormones","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/241851"}},{"articleId":241846,"title":"How Living Things Obtain Matter and Energy for Growth","slug":"living-things-obtain-matter-energy-growth","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/241846"}},{"articleId":241843,"title":"Gender Differentiation in Humans","slug":"gender-differentiation-humans","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/241843"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":270004,"title":"Your Body, Your Cells: Eukaryotic Cells","slug":"your-body-your-cells-eukaryotic-cells","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/270004"}},{"articleId":269999,"title":"How to Use Recombinant DNA Technology to Solve Problems","slug":"how-to-use-recombinant-dna-technology-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269999"}},{"articleId":269996,"title":"Recombinant DNA Technology","slug":"recombinant-dna-technology","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269996"}},{"articleId":269993,"title":"Gene Expression in Bacteria","slug":"gene-expression-in-bacteria","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269993"}},{"articleId":269962,"title":"Metabolic Pathways","slug":"metabolic-pathways","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269962"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281996,"slug":"biology-for-dummies-3rd-edition","isbn":"9781119345374","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119345375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119345375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119345375-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119345375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119345375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/biology-for-dummies-3rd-edition-cover-9781119345374-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Biology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<p><b data-author-id=\"9201\">René Fester Kratz, PhD,</b> teaches biology at Everett Community College. Dr. Kratz holds a PhD in Botany from the University of Washington. She works with other scientists and K?12 teachers to develop science curricula that align with national learning standards and the latest research on human learning. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz, PhD</b> is a Biology instructor at Everett Community College. As a member of the North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership, she worked to develop science curricula that are in alignment with research on human learning. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;biology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119345374&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62ec5dc547b79\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;biology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119345374&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62ec5dc54821f\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":192645,"title":"Key Concepts in Human Biology and Physiology","slug":"key-concepts-in-human-biology-and-physiology","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192645"}},{"articleId":192644,"title":"Natural Selection and Biological Evolution","slug":"natural-selection-and-biological-evolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192644"}},{"articleId":192641,"title":"Biological Reproduction and Cell Division","slug":"biological-reproduction-and-cell-division","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192641"}}],"content":[{"title":"Key concepts in human biology and physiology ","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<div class=\"custom-spynav\" data-v-98c17f9c=\"\" data-v-76ccd6ad=\"\">\n<div class=\"custom-spynav-desktop\" data-v-98c17f9c=\"\">\n<div class=\"sticky-sidebar\" data-v-98c17f9c=\"\">\n<ul class=\"nav spynav-listing nav-stacked nav-pills\" data-v-98c17f9c=\"\">\n<li class=\"nav-item\" data-v-98c17f9c=\"\"><a class=\"nav-link\" href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/science/biology/key-concepts-in-human-biology-and-physiology-192645/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-v-98c17f9c=\"\">Introduction</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n</div>\n</div>\n<div class=\"middle-content\" data-v-76ccd6ad=\"\">\n<div id=\"inner-middle-content\" class=\"inner-middle-content\" data-v-76ccd6ad=\"\">\n<div id=\"article-content-wrapper\" data-v-89b5964a=\"\" data-v-76ccd6ad=\"\">\n<div class=\"row drops-callout-row\" data-v-89b5964a=\"\">\n<div class=\"drops-callout-col col\" data-v-89b5964a=\"\" data-testid=\"dropsCalloutsWrapper\"></div>\n</div>\n<article class=\"article-content\" data-v-89b5964a=\"\" data-testid=\"articleContent\">The study of biology includes the study of human beings. The biological functions of humans are similar to those of many other animals. Like other animals, humans need to acquire oxygen and energy in order to survive. Here is a brief summary of key human biological concepts:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Organisms are made of organ systems, which are made of organs, which are made of tissues, which are made of cells, which are made of molecules, which are made of atoms.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Homeostasis is the balance, or equilibrium, of the body. Regulation of all the body’s systems seeks to keep the body in homeostasis.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">The heart is a muscular pump. Contractions by the heart push blood through the circulatory system.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Within the circulatory system, blood travels in arteries to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and returns through veins to carry carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Blood also carries nutrients from the digestive system to the cells of the body and removes wastes from the cells.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Exchange of the respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, occurs in the lungs.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Digestion involves the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food molecules into their smallest subunits. Digestion begins in the mouth and continues in the stomach and small intestine.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Absorption of nutrients in the digestive system occurs through the cells of the small intestine.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Glands are organs in the endocrine system that secrete hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that can alter the behavior of target cells.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">The nervous system consists of two main systems, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system. The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord and sends out instructions. The peripheral nervous system contains the nerves that send the messages from the CNS to the rest of the body.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">The muscular and skeletal systems work together to allow movement. The muscles contain fibers that can contract, while the skeleton provides support and structures for muscles to pull against.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</article>\n</div>\n</div>\n</div>\n"},{"title":"Natural selection and biological evolution ","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>When studying Biology, you&#8217;ll hear about biological evolution, which refers to the change of living things over time. Charles Darwin concluded that biological evolution occurs as a result of natural selection, which is the theory that in any given generation, some individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce than others. In order for natural selection to occur in a population, several conditions must be met:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Individuals in the population must produce more offspring than can survive.</b> Human beings are somewhat unique among living things in that we can make conscious choices about how many offspring we have. Most other organisms, however, produce as many offspring as they can.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Those individuals must have different characteristics.</b> During Darwin’s time, no one knew where these differences came from. Now scientists know that differences in organisms arise due to mutations in DNA combined with the mixing of genetic information during sexual reproduction.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Offspring must inherit some characteristics from their parents. </b>During Darwin’s time, the laws of inheritance were just beginning to be figured out, so Darwin didn’t know exactly how parents passed on their traits. Modern scientists know that traits are inherited when parents pass genes on to their offspring.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Organisms with the best-suited characteristics for their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.</b> This is the heart of natural selection. If there’s competition for survival and not all the organisms are the same, then the ones with the advantageous traits are more likely to survive. If these traits can be inherited, then the next generation will show more of these advantageous traits.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>If these four conditions are met, then the new generation of individuals will be different from the original generation in the frequency and distribution of traits, which is pretty much the definition of biological evolution.</p>\n"},{"title":"Biological reproduction and cell division ","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Biology is all about life. In order for life to continue, <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/biology/human-biology-fertilization-through-birth/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">reproduction</a> has to occur at the cellular level so that genetic information (DNA) is replicated. The following concepts (mitosis and meiosis) are key to understanding how cells reproduce:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Cells do <b>mitosis</b> when they are going to make an exact copy of themselves for asexual reproduction, growth, or tissue repair. <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/biology/dna-replication/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">DNA replication</a> occurs once, followed by a single division. The parent and daughter cells are both diploid, which means they have a double set of chromosomes.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Cells do <b>meiosis</b> in order to produce gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual reproduction. DNA replication occurs once, followed by two divisions. The parent cell is diploid, but the daughter cells are haploid, which means they have half the number of chromosomes as their parent cells.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-02-25T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":209035},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:58:15+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-06-30T21:09:28+00:00","timestamp":"2022-07-01T00:01:03+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Physics","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33769"},"slug":"physics","categoryId":33769}],"title":"String Theory For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"string theory for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"string-theory-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"The study of string theory is still young and evolving. Here's a handy guide on its history, basic features, and concepts.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"String theory, often called the “theory of everything,” is a relatively young science that includes such unusual concepts as superstrings, branes, and extra dimensions. Scientists are hopeful that string theory will unlock one of the biggest mysteries of the universe, namely how gravity and quantum physics fit together.","description":"String theory, often called the “theory of everything,” is a relatively young science that includes such unusual concepts as superstrings, branes, and extra dimensions. Scientists are hopeful that string theory will unlock one of the biggest mysteries of the universe, namely how gravity and quantum physics fit together.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9499,"name":"Andrew Zimmerman Jones","slug":"andrew-zimmerman-jones","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9499"}},{"authorId":35165,"name":"Alessandro Sfrondrini","slug":"alessandro-sfrondrini","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/35165"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33769,"title":"Physics","slug":"physics","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33769"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":209012,"title":"Physics II For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"physics-ii-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/209012"}},{"articleId":208592,"title":"Thermodynamics For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"thermodynamics-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208592"}},{"articleId":208578,"title":"Optics For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"optics-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208578"}},{"articleId":208460,"title":"Physics I For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"physics-i-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208460"}},{"articleId":207736,"title":"Physics I Workbook For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"physics-i-workbook-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207736"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":294138,"slug":"string-theory-for-dummies-2","isbn":"9781119888970","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","quantum-physics"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119888972/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119888972/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119888972-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119888972/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119888972/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"title":"String Theory For Dummies, 2nd Edition","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"","authors":[{"authorId":9499,"name":"Andrew Zimmerman Jones","slug":"andrew-zimmerman-jones","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9499"}},{"authorId":35165,"name":"Alessandro Sfrondrini","slug":"alessandro-sfrondrini","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/35165"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;physics&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119888970&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62be3940181ad\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;physics&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119888970&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62be3940191cb\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":195183,"title":"String Theory Features","slug":"string-theory-features","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/195183"}},{"articleId":195180,"title":"Superpartners in String Theory","slug":"superpartners-in-string-theory","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/195180"}},{"articleId":195173,"title":"Keeping Track of String Theory’s Many Names","slug":"keeping-track-of-string-theorys-many-names","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/195173"}},{"articleId":195185,"title":"Key Events in String Theory History","slug":"key-events-in-string-theory-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/195185"}}],"content":[{"title":"String theory features","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>String theory is a work in progress, so trying to pin down exactly what the science is, or what its fundamental elements are, can be kind of tricky. The key string theory features include:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">All objects in our universe are composed of vibrating filaments (strings) and membranes (branes) of energy.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">String theory attempts to reconcile general relativity (gravity) with quantum physics.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">A new connection (called <i>supersymmetry</i>) exists between two fundamentally different types of particles, <i>bosons</i> and <i>fermions.</i></p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Several extra dimensions to the universe must exist.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Superpartners in string theory","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>String theory’s concept of <i>supersymmetry</i> is a fancy way of saying that each particle has a related particle called a <i>superpartner.</i> Keeping track of the names of these superpartners can be tricky, so here are the rules in a nutshell.</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">The superpartner of a fermion begins with an <em>s</em>, so the superpartner of an electron is the selectron and the superpartner of the quark is the squark.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">The superpartner of a boson ends in <em>ino</em>, so the superpartner of a photon is the photino and of the graviton is the gravitino.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>Use the following table to see some examples of the superpartner names.</p>\n<table>\n<caption>Some Superpartner Names</caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Standard Particle</th>\n<th>Superpartner</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Higgs boson</td>\n<td>Higgsino</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Neutrino</td>\n<td>Sneutrino</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Lepton</td>\n<td>Slepton</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Z boson</td>\n<td>Zino</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>W boson</td>\n<td>Wino</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Gluon</td>\n<td>Gluino</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Muon</td>\n<td>Smuon</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Top quark</td>\n<td>Stop squark</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"Keeping track of string theory's many names","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>String theory has gone through many name changes over the years. The list below provides an at-a-glance look at some of the major names for different types of string theory.</p>\n<p>Some versions have more specific variations, which are shown as subentries. (These different variants are related in complex ways and sometimes overlap, so this breakdown into subentries is based on the order in which the theories developed.) Now, if you hear these names, you’ll know they’re talking about string theory!</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Bosonic string theory</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Superstring theory (or Supersymmetric string theory)</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Type I, Type IIA, Type IIB, Heterotic string theories</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">M-theory</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Brane world scenarios</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Randall-Sundrum models</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">F-theory</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Key events in string theory","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Although string theory is a young science, it has had many notable achievements. What follows are some landmark events in the history of string theory.</p>\n<p><b>1968:</b> Gabriele Veneziano originally proposes the dual resonance model.</p>\n<p><b>1970:</b> String theory is created when physicists interpret Veneziano’s model as describing a universe of vibrating strings.</p>\n<p><b>1971:</b> Supersymmetry is incorporated, creating superstring theory.</p>\n<p><b>1974:</b> String theories are shown to require extra dimensions. An object similar to the graviton is found in superstring theories.</p>\n<p><b>1984:</b> The first superstring revolution begins when it’s shown that anomalies are absent in superstring theory.</p>\n<p><b>1985:</b> Heterotic string theory is developed. Calabi-Yau manifolds are shown to compactify the extra dimensions.</p>\n<p><b>1995:</b> Edward Witten proposes M-theory as unification of superstring theories, starting the second superstring revolution. Joe Polchinski shows branes are necessarily included in string theory.</p>\n<p><b>1996:</b> String theory is used to analyze black hole thermodynamics, matching earlier predictions from other methods.</p>\n<p><strong>1997:</strong> Juan Maldacena shows how it is possible to realize the holographic principle in string theory, which relates theories with gravity and theories without gravity living in one dimension less</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":null,"sponsorEbookTitle":null,"sponsorEbookLink":null,"sponsorEbookImage":null},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-01-19T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":209405},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:47:22+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-06-28T20:21:13+00:00","timestamp":"2022-06-29T00:01:06+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Physics","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33769"},"slug":"physics","categoryId":33769}],"title":"Physics I: 501 Practice Problems For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"physics i: 501 practice problems for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"physics-i-practice-problems-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Keep this handy reference for some of the most common unit prefixes and unit conversions you’re bound to encounter in your physics homework.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Solving physics problems correctly is a lot easier when you have a couple tricks under your belt. In fact, you can greatly improve your odds of getting the right answer if you make sure that what you calculated is plausible in the real world. Another trick is to draw your own visual when one isn’t provided for you — no artistic ability required.\r\n\r\nIt also helps to have this handy reference for some of the most common unit prefixes and unit conversions you’re bound to encounter in your physics homework.","description":"Solving physics problems correctly is a lot easier when you have a couple tricks under your belt. In fact, you can greatly improve your odds of getting the right answer if you make sure that what you calculated is plausible in the real world. Another trick is to draw your own visual when one isn’t provided for you — no artistic ability required.\r\n\r\nIt also helps to have this handy reference for some of the most common unit prefixes and unit conversions you’re bound to encounter in your physics homework.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":8947,"name":"The Experts at Dummies","slug":"the-experts-at-dummies","description":"The Experts at Dummies are smart, friendly people who make learning easy by taking a not-so-serious approach to serious stuff.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8947"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33769,"title":"Physics","slug":"physics","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33769"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":144633,"title":"Solving Force Problems in Physics by Using Free-Body Diagrams","slug":"solving-force-problems-in-physics-by-using-free-body-diagrams","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/144633"}},{"articleId":144607,"title":"Physics Reference Charts for Unit Prefixes and Unit Conversion","slug":"physics-reference-charts-for-unit-prefixes-and-unit-conversion","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/144607"}},{"articleId":144608,"title":"How to Check for Physically Reasonable Answers When Solving Physics Problems","slug":"how-to-check-for-physically-reasonable-answers-when-solving-physics-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/144608"}},{"articleId":141184,"title":"Density and Specific Gravity in Physics Problems","slug":"density-and-specific-gravity-in-physics-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/141184"}},{"articleId":141185,"title":"Constant Angular Speed in Physics Problems","slug":"constant-angular-speed-in-physics-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/141185"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":209405,"title":"String Theory For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"string-theory-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/209405"}},{"articleId":209012,"title":"Physics II For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"physics-ii-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/209012"}},{"articleId":208592,"title":"Thermodynamics For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"thermodynamics-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208592"}},{"articleId":208578,"title":"Optics For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"optics-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208578"}},{"articleId":208460,"title":"Physics I For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"physics-i-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208460"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282468,"slug":"physics-i-practice-problems-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119883715","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119883717/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119883717/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119883717-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119883717/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119883717/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119883715-204x255.jpg","width":204,"height":255},"title":"Physics I: 501 Practice Problems For Dummies (+ Free Online Practice)","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"","authors":[{"authorId":34784,"name":"","slug":"","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34784"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;physics&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119883715&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62bb96422d3b9\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;physics&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119883715&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62bb96422e0f3\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":144608,"title":"How to Check for Physically Reasonable Answers When Solving Physics Problems","slug":"how-to-check-for-physically-reasonable-answers-when-solving-physics-problems","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/144608"}},{"articleId":144633,"title":"Solving Force Problems in Physics by Using Free-Body Diagrams","slug":"solving-force-problems-in-physics-by-using-free-body-diagrams","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/144633"}},{"articleId":144607,"title":"Physics Reference Charts for Unit Prefixes and Unit Conversion","slug":"physics-reference-charts-for-unit-prefixes-and-unit-conversion","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","physics"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/144607"}}],"content":[{"title":"How to check for physically reasonable answers in physics problems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Because physics describes reality, your solutions to any physics problems you tackle should be able to describe reality, too. You can avoid many mistakes by checking that your answers have the following properties:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>They have the right units.</b> If a problem asks you to find a speed and you get 5 kilograms, you know you made a mistake somewhere. (Note that this check only works if you keep track of your units throughout the whole problem.)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>They’re the right size.</b> If you calculate that the mass of a planet is 53 grams, that the speed of a soccer ball is 3 trillion meters per second, or that the temperature of ice is 350 degrees Celsius, start searching for the mistake.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>They point in the right direction.</b> When you’re looking for a vector, sometimes you know roughly what direction it should point.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>They have the right sign. </b>If you find that the density of a liquid is –1,200 kilograms per cubic meter, you made a sign error along the way.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Solving force problems in physics by using free-body diagrams","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>In physics, force problems typically ask you to predict what will happen when you apply force to an object, and usually there’s no handy illustration to help you visualize what’s being described. Fortunately, you can create your own diagram so you can better picture what a question is asking you. Follow this seven-step method to solve force problems:</p>\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Draw each of the objects you’re interested in.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Here’s an example:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/470175.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"388\" height=\"158\" /></li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Identify the forces acting <b>on</b> each object.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">For each force acting on one of the objects from Step 1, draw an arrow that indicates the direction of the force, as shown in the following figure. Note that the tail of the arrow indicates which part of the object the force is acting on.</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/470176.image1.jpg\" alt=\"image1.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"255\" /></li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Draw a free-body diagram for each object.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">If you’re following this step-by-step guide, you’ve already drawn a free-body diagram. It’s listed separately because it’s the most important step!</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Choose a coordinate system for each object.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Usually you draw the <i>x</i>-direction horizontally and the <i>y</i>-direction vertically, as shown in the following figure. However, when dealing with inclined planes, sometimes you want to choose your coordinate axes parallel and perpendicular to the plane.</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/470177.image2.jpg\" alt=\"image2.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"137\" /></li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">For each object, write down each component of Newton’s second law.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">For angular motion problems, choose an axis of rotation and write down the angular version of Newton’s second law.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Include any constraints.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Sometimes you have more variables than equations at this point. Write down any other information you know. For example, if a car is driving on a flat road, you know that the vertical component of its acceleration is zero.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Solve the equations.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Now that you’ve used all your physics knowledge, all you have to do is the algebra.</p>\n</li>\n</ol>\n"},{"title":"Physics reference charts for unit prefixes and unit conversion","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>When solving physics problems, you’ll often encounter unit prefixes that you need to know. You also need to be familiar with common unit symbols and their corresponding SI units. The following tables list some of the typical prefixes and symbols that you may see.</p>\n<table>\n<caption>Commonly Used Unit Prefixes in Physics Problems</caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Unit Prefix Name</th>\n<th>Symbol</th>\n<th>Factor</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>tera-</td>\n<td>T</td>\n<td>10<sup>12</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>giga-</td>\n<td>G</td>\n<td>10<sup>9</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>mega-</td>\n<td>M</td>\n<td>10<sup>6</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>kilo-</td>\n<td>k</td>\n<td>10<sup>3</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>centi-</td>\n<td>c</td>\n<td>10<sup>–2</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>milli-</td>\n<td>m</td>\n<td>10<sup>–3</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>micro-</td>\n<td>ì</td>\n<td>10<sup>–6</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>nano-</td>\n<td>n</td>\n<td>10<sup>–9</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>pico-</td>\n<td>p</td>\n<td>10<sup>–12</sup></td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<table>\n<caption>Handy Unit Conversions for Physics Problems</caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Derived Units</th>\n<th>Symbol</th>\n<th>SI Units</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Newton</td>\n<td>N</td>\n<td>kilogram meter per second squared</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Joule</td>\n<td>J</td>\n<td>kilogram meter squared per second squared</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Watt</td>\n<td>W</td>\n<td>kilogram meter squared per second cubed</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Hertz</td>\n<td>Hz</td>\n<td>inverse second</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Pascal</td>\n<td>P</td>\n<td>kilogram per meter per second squared</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Degree Celsius</td>\n<td>°C</td>\n<td>kelvin</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":null,"sponsorEbookTitle":null,"sponsorEbookLink":null,"sponsorEbookImage":null},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-01-28T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":207542},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2022-04-21T19:59:06+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-06-24T14:21:40+00:00","timestamp":"2022-06-24T18:01:03+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Astronomy","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33758"},"slug":"astronomy","categoryId":33758}],"title":"The Magic of the Moon and the Total Lunar Eclipse","strippedTitle":"the magic of the moon and the total lunar eclipse","slug":"dont-miss-out-on-this-months-lunar-eclipse","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn what happens during a total lunar eclipse, as well as some interesting facts about the moon's significance in world culture.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Every couple of years or so, we earthlings are treated to the beauty of a total lunar eclipse. The moon appears red as it passes into Earth's shadow, and for some, this elicits the wonder of our orbiting celestial friend and its significance to world culture.\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">A lunar eclipse is the cousin to a solar eclipse, albeit much less dramatic. Still, it makes for a great experience. As the full moon passes into the earth’s shadow, the moon can appear to darken and then change color, turning a dark red.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">The moon looks red because the sun’s light gets bent (refracted) through the earth’s atmosphere. The red light gets bent the most, so that’s the light that illuminates the moon’s surface during a lunar eclipse. You could think of it as the light from every sunrise and sunset on Earth lighting up the moon’s surface!</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292170\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292170\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/matteo-grassi-7n5YLJb0ESs-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"phases of a lunar eclipse\" width=\"630\" height=\"421\" /> © Matteo Grassi / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">For more mind-bending astronomy facts about the moon and other celestial bodies, check out </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/science/astronomy/astronomy-for-dummies-4th-edition-281963/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Astronomy For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\">.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292173\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292173\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/mark-de-jong-B3BisFE09y8-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"two people stargazing\" width=\"630\" height=\"420\" /> © Mark de Jong / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 aria-level=\"2\"><span data-contrast=\"none\">Stargazing a lunar eclipse</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></h2>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Total lunar eclipses aren’t very common. But two things make them easier to observe than solar eclipses:</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-leveltext=\"\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"1\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"1\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">When a lunar eclipse happens, it’s often visible from anywhere on the night side of the earth.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></li>\r\n \t<li data-leveltext=\"\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"1\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"2\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Lunar eclipses are safe to observe with your eyes, binoculars and telescopes.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Want to learn how to best explore the distant wonders of the night sky? </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/science/astronomy/stargazing-for-dummies-281602/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stargazing For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> offers readers a detailed starter guide for the future stargazer.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >The moon in world culture</h2>\r\nBeyond its striking appearance during a total lunar eclipse, check out this interesting information about the moon's significance in world culture.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292177\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292177\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/manuel-nageli-NsgsQjHA1mM-unsplash-1.jpg\" alt=\"symphony rehearsing\" width=\"630\" height=\"420\" /> © Manuel Nägeli / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 aria-level=\"2\"><span data-contrast=\"none\">The moon in classical music: From Beethoven to Chopin</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></h2>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Did you know classical music has a few sub-genres dedicated entirely to capturing the moon’s natural beauty and emotive characteristics?</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">For example, you’ve likely heard of Beethoven’s </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Moonlight Sonata</span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> or, perhaps, Debussy’s </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Clair de lune</span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">. These timeless pieces of music take their listeners through a moonlight-draped journey full of evocative passages, foreboding moments and somewhat mysterious tones — all inspired by that lonely white marble above. </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Chopin’s </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Nocturnes </span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">are another great example. As their name suggests, these are compositions centered entirely around the moon, nighttime, and dreaming.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">For more on classical music and its many timeless compositions, check out </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/music/general-music/classical-music-for-dummies-282084/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Classical Music For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\">.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292180\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292180\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/micky-white-i9OTdLEl9Qo-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"zodiac symbols on a building facade\" width=\"630\" height=\"410\" /> ©Micky White / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 aria-level=\"2\"><span data-contrast=\"none\">The Moon in astrology: Emotions, instincts and habits</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></h2>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Of course, no discussion about the moon would be complete without mentioning its significance in Western astrology. And yes </span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">— there’s more to it than the 12 zodiac signs.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">The moon's nodes, for example, refer to where its path crosses the </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">ecliptic,</span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> which is the apparent path of the sun among the constellations over the course of a year. The north or ascending node marks the place where the moon crosses from south to north, seemingly ascending through the sky. The south, or descending node marks where the moon crosses from north to south, descending through the sky.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">What does this mean for astrologers? Without getting into the nitty gritty details, the moon is often associated with the “emotional self” in our astrological charts, and can represent the mysterious, hidden, and spiritual self in the tarot.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">To learn more about the moon’s significance in Western astrology, check out </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/body-mind-spirit/religion-spirituality/astrology/astrology-for-dummies-3rd-edition-2-281962/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Astrology For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\">.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":1,\"335551620\":1,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>","description":"Every couple of years or so, we earthlings are treated to the beauty of a total lunar eclipse. The moon appears red as it passes into Earth's shadow, and for some, this elicits the wonder of our orbiting celestial friend and its significance to world culture.\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">A lunar eclipse is the cousin to a solar eclipse, albeit much less dramatic. Still, it makes for a great experience. As the full moon passes into the earth’s shadow, the moon can appear to darken and then change color, turning a dark red.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">The moon looks red because the sun’s light gets bent (refracted) through the earth’s atmosphere. The red light gets bent the most, so that’s the light that illuminates the moon’s surface during a lunar eclipse. You could think of it as the light from every sunrise and sunset on Earth lighting up the moon’s surface!</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292170\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292170\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/matteo-grassi-7n5YLJb0ESs-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"phases of a lunar eclipse\" width=\"630\" height=\"421\" /> © Matteo Grassi / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">For more mind-bending astronomy facts about the moon and other celestial bodies, check out </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/science/astronomy/astronomy-for-dummies-4th-edition-281963/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Astronomy For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\">.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292173\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292173\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/mark-de-jong-B3BisFE09y8-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"two people stargazing\" width=\"630\" height=\"420\" /> © Mark de Jong / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 aria-level=\"2\"><span data-contrast=\"none\">Stargazing a lunar eclipse</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></h2>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Total lunar eclipses aren’t very common. But two things make them easier to observe than solar eclipses:</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-leveltext=\"\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"1\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"1\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">When a lunar eclipse happens, it’s often visible from anywhere on the night side of the earth.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></li>\r\n \t<li data-leveltext=\"\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"1\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"2\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Lunar eclipses are safe to observe with your eyes, binoculars and telescopes.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Want to learn how to best explore the distant wonders of the night sky? </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/science/astronomy/stargazing-for-dummies-281602/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stargazing For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> offers readers a detailed starter guide for the future stargazer.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >The moon in world culture</h2>\r\nBeyond its striking appearance during a total lunar eclipse, check out this interesting information about the moon's significance in world culture.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292177\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292177\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/manuel-nageli-NsgsQjHA1mM-unsplash-1.jpg\" alt=\"symphony rehearsing\" width=\"630\" height=\"420\" /> © Manuel Nägeli / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 aria-level=\"2\"><span data-contrast=\"none\">The moon in classical music: From Beethoven to Chopin</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></h2>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Did you know classical music has a few sub-genres dedicated entirely to capturing the moon’s natural beauty and emotive characteristics?</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">For example, you’ve likely heard of Beethoven’s </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Moonlight Sonata</span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> or, perhaps, Debussy’s </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Clair de lune</span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">. These timeless pieces of music take their listeners through a moonlight-draped journey full of evocative passages, foreboding moments and somewhat mysterious tones — all inspired by that lonely white marble above. </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Chopin’s </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Nocturnes </span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">are another great example. As their name suggests, these are compositions centered entirely around the moon, nighttime, and dreaming.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">For more on classical music and its many timeless compositions, check out </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/music/general-music/classical-music-for-dummies-282084/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Classical Music For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\">.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292180\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292180\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/micky-white-i9OTdLEl9Qo-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"zodiac symbols on a building facade\" width=\"630\" height=\"410\" /> ©Micky White / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 aria-level=\"2\"><span data-contrast=\"none\">The Moon in astrology: Emotions, instincts and habits</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span></h2>\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">Of course, no discussion about the moon would be complete without mentioning its significance in Western astrology. And yes </span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">— there’s more to it than the 12 zodiac signs.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">The moon's nodes, for example, refer to where its path crosses the </span><i><span data-contrast=\"auto\">ecliptic,</span></i><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> which is the apparent path of the sun among the constellations over the course of a year. The north or ascending node marks the place where the moon crosses from south to north, seemingly ascending through the sky. The south, or descending node marks where the moon crosses from north to south, descending through the sky.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">What does this mean for astrologers? Without getting into the nitty gritty details, the moon is often associated with the “emotional self” in our astrological charts, and can represent the mysterious, hidden, and spiritual self in the tarot.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>\r\n\r\n<span data-contrast=\"auto\">To learn more about the moon’s significance in Western astrology, check out </span><em><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/body-mind-spirit/religion-spirituality/astrology/astrology-for-dummies-3rd-edition-2-281962/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Astrology For Dummies</a></em><span data-contrast=\"auto\">.</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":1,\"335551620\":1,\"335559739\":160,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33758,"title":"Astronomy","slug":"astronomy","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33758"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"<span data-contrast=\"none\">Stargazing a lunar eclipse</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"The moon in world culture","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"<span data-contrast=\"none\">The moon in classical music: From Beethoven to Chopin</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"<span data-contrast=\"none\">The Moon in astrology: Emotions, instincts and habits</span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"201341983\":0,\"335559738\":40,\"335559739\":0,\"335559740\":259}\"> </span>","target":"#tab4"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":246769,"title":"Skywatching for Artificial Satellites","slug":"skywatching-artificial-satellites","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246769"}},{"articleId":246764,"title":"Making Heads and Tails of a Comet's Structure","slug":"making-heads-tails-comets-structure","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246764"}},{"articleId":246761,"title":"Photographing Meteors and Meteor Showers","slug":"photographing-meteors-meteor-showers","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246761"}},{"articleId":246756,"title":"Viewing Meteor Showers","slug":"viewing-meteor-showers","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246756"}},{"articleId":246753,"title":"Spotting Sporadic Meteors, Fireballs, and Bolides","slug":"spotting-sporadic-meteors-fireballs-bolides","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246753"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[{"title":"Contemplating the Cosmos","slug":"theres-something-about-space","collectionId":294090}],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;astronomy&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62b5fbdfeeb27\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;astronomy&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62b5fbdfef415\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":null,"sponsorEbookTitle":null,"sponsorEbookLink":null,"sponsorEbookImage":null},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-06-23T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":292167},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2017-11-14T05:44:54+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-06-23T13:52:49+00:00","timestamp":"2022-06-23T18:01:10+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Astronomy","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33758"},"slug":"astronomy","categoryId":33758}],"title":"What Are Star Parties?","strippedTitle":"what are star parties?","slug":"what-are-star-parties","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Star parties are gatherings for astronomy enthusiasts. Learn about the most popular events around the world and what to expect if you go.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"<em>Star parties</em> are outdoor conventions for amateur astronomers. They set up their telescopes (some homemade and some not) in a field, and people take turns skywatching. (Be prepared to hear plenty of \"Oohs\" and \"Ahs.\")\r\n\r\nJudges choose the best homemade telescopes and equipment, earning their owners esteem and sometimes even a prize. If rain falls in the evening, partygoers may watch slide shows in a nearby hall or a big tent. Arrangements vary, but often, some attendees camp in the field; others rent inexpensive cabins or commute from nearby motels.\r\n\r\nStar parties may last for a night or two, or sometimes as long as a week. They attract a few hundred to a few thousand (yes, thousand!) telescope makers and amateur astronomers. And the larger star parties have websites with photos of previous events and details on coming attractions. Some resemble <a href=\"http://www.cityofastronomy.org/astrofest2022\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AstroFests</a>, with exhibitors and distinguished speakers, as well as stargazing.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tip\">The leading star parties in the United States include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://stellafane.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stellafane</a>:</strong> This Vermont star party has been going strong since 1926.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"https://texasstarparty.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Texas Star Party</a>:</strong> Commune with the stars on the mile-high Prude Ranch in the Lone Star State.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://enchantedskies.org/essp/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Enchanted Skies Star Party</a>:</strong> Head to the desert for dark sky observing near Magdalena, New Mexico, and fine speakers.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://www.nebraskastarparty.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nebraska Star Party</a>:</strong> This party boasts \"a fantastic light pollution–free sweep of the summer night sky.\"</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nHere are some of the leading star parties in the United Kingdom:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>The <a href=\"http://las-skycamp.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">LAS Equinox Sky Camp</a>:</strong> Held at Kelling Heath, Norfolk, this party bills itself as \"the largest star party in the U.K.\"</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://sites.google.com/a/richarddarn.com/kielder-forest-star-camp-bookings/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kielder Star Camp</a>:</strong> This twice-yearly event in the Northumberland International Dark Sky Park occurs in a forest thought to be \"the darkest venue for any English star party.\"</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nIf you live in or plan to visit the Southern Hemisphere, check out these star parties:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.asnsw.com/spsp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">South Pacific Star Party</a>:</strong> It's held near Ilford, NSW, Australia, on a property reserved for skywatching by the <a href=\"http://www.asnsw.com/node/712\">Astronomical Society of New South Wales</a>.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://www.censtar.party/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Central Star Party</a>:</strong> Try this party on New Zealand's North Island, a bit off the beaten path.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nIn the long run, visit at least one of these star parties, but in the meantime, you can ask at a local astronomy club meeting about a similar, although perhaps smaller, event that may be planned in your own area.","description":"<em>Star parties</em> are outdoor conventions for amateur astronomers. They set up their telescopes (some homemade and some not) in a field, and people take turns skywatching. (Be prepared to hear plenty of \"Oohs\" and \"Ahs.\")\r\n\r\nJudges choose the best homemade telescopes and equipment, earning their owners esteem and sometimes even a prize. If rain falls in the evening, partygoers may watch slide shows in a nearby hall or a big tent. Arrangements vary, but often, some attendees camp in the field; others rent inexpensive cabins or commute from nearby motels.\r\n\r\nStar parties may last for a night or two, or sometimes as long as a week. They attract a few hundred to a few thousand (yes, thousand!) telescope makers and amateur astronomers. And the larger star parties have websites with photos of previous events and details on coming attractions. Some resemble <a href=\"http://www.cityofastronomy.org/astrofest2022\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AstroFests</a>, with exhibitors and distinguished speakers, as well as stargazing.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tip\">The leading star parties in the United States include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://stellafane.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stellafane</a>:</strong> This Vermont star party has been going strong since 1926.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"https://texasstarparty.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Texas Star Party</a>:</strong> Commune with the stars on the mile-high Prude Ranch in the Lone Star State.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://enchantedskies.org/essp/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Enchanted Skies Star Party</a>:</strong> Head to the desert for dark sky observing near Magdalena, New Mexico, and fine speakers.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://www.nebraskastarparty.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nebraska Star Party</a>:</strong> This party boasts \"a fantastic light pollution–free sweep of the summer night sky.\"</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nHere are some of the leading star parties in the United Kingdom:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>The <a href=\"http://las-skycamp.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">LAS Equinox Sky Camp</a>:</strong> Held at Kelling Heath, Norfolk, this party bills itself as \"the largest star party in the U.K.\"</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://sites.google.com/a/richarddarn.com/kielder-forest-star-camp-bookings/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kielder Star Camp</a>:</strong> This twice-yearly event in the Northumberland International Dark Sky Park occurs in a forest thought to be \"the darkest venue for any English star party.\"</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nIf you live in or plan to visit the Southern Hemisphere, check out these star parties:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"https://www.asnsw.com/spsp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">South Pacific Star Party</a>:</strong> It's held near Ilford, NSW, Australia, on a property reserved for skywatching by the <a href=\"http://www.asnsw.com/node/712\">Astronomical Society of New South Wales</a>.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong><a href=\"http://www.censtar.party/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Central Star Party</a>:</strong> Try this party on New Zealand's North Island, a bit off the beaten path.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nIn the long run, visit at least one of these star parties, but in the meantime, you can ask at a local astronomy club meeting about a similar, although perhaps smaller, event that may be planned in your own area.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9879,"name":"Stephen P. Maran","slug":"stephen-p-maran","description":"Stephen P. Maran, PhD, is the retired assistant director of space sciences for information and outreach at the NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center. An investigator of stars, nebulae, and comets, he worked on the Hubble Space Telescope, Space Shuttle missions, Skylab, and other NASA projects.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9879"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33758,"title":"Astronomy","slug":"astronomy","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33758"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":246769,"title":"Skywatching for Artificial Satellites","slug":"skywatching-artificial-satellites","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246769"}},{"articleId":246764,"title":"Making Heads and Tails of a Comet's Structure","slug":"making-heads-tails-comets-structure","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246764"}},{"articleId":246761,"title":"Photographing Meteors and Meteor Showers","slug":"photographing-meteors-meteor-showers","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246761"}},{"articleId":246756,"title":"Viewing Meteor Showers","slug":"viewing-meteor-showers","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246756"}},{"articleId":246753,"title":"Spotting Sporadic Meteors, Fireballs, and Bolides","slug":"spotting-sporadic-meteors-fireballs-bolides","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246753"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":294095,"title":"Conspiracy Theory: Moon Landings Were Faked","slug":"conspiracy-theory-moon-landings-were-faked","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/294095"}},{"articleId":292167,"title":"The Magic of the Moon and the Total Lunar Eclipse","slug":"dont-miss-out-on-this-months-lunar-eclipse","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/292167"}},{"articleId":246769,"title":"Skywatching for Artificial Satellites","slug":"skywatching-artificial-satellites","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246769"}},{"articleId":246764,"title":"Making Heads and Tails of a Comet's Structure","slug":"making-heads-tails-comets-structure","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246764"}},{"articleId":246761,"title":"Photographing Meteors and Meteor Showers","slug":"photographing-meteors-meteor-showers","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/246761"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281963,"slug":"astronomy-for-dummies-4th-edition","isbn":"9781119374244","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","astronomy"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119374243/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119374243/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119374243-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119374243/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119374243/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/astronomy-for-dummies-4th-edition-cover-9781119374244-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Astronomy For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"https://testbanks.wiley.com","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<p><b data-author-id=\"35067\">Stephen P. 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Understanding biology begins with knowing some of the basics, such as eukaryotic cell structure and common Latin and Greek roots that will help you decipher the sometimes-tough vocabulary.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz</b>, PhD, is a biology instructor at Everett Community College in Everett, Washington.</p>","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33760,"title":"Biology","slug":"biology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33760"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":177301,"title":"Biology Basics: Important Components of Eukaryotic 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Workbook For Dummies, 2nd Edition","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><b><b data-author-id=\"9201\">Rene Fester Kratz</b></b>, PhD, is a biology instructor at Everett Community College in Everett, Washington.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9201,"name":"Rene Fester Kratz","slug":"rene-fester-kratz","description":" <p><b>Rene Fester Kratz</b>, PhD, is a biology instructor at Everett Community College in Everett, Washington.</p>","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9201"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = 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Vocabulary","slug":"common-latin-and-greek-roots-in-biology-vocabulary","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/177272"}},{"articleId":177301,"title":"Biology Basics: Important Components of Eukaryotic Cells","slug":"biology-basics-important-components-of-eukaryotic-cells","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","biology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/177301"}}],"content":[{"title":"Biology basics: Important components of eukaryotic cells","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>For biology students, knowing the components of eukaryotic cells and how they work is fundamental to understanding how organisms function. This table provides an overview of the most important eukaryotic cell structures and functions and how to recognize them.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Structure</th>\n<th>Function</th>\n<th>How to Recognize</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cell wall</td>\n<td>Rigid boundary around some cells</td>\n<td>Outermost boundary in plant, algal, fungal, and bacterial<br />\ncells. Cells with a cell wall are usually very regular in shape,<br />\nlike they’ve been cut with a cookie cutter.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Chloroplasts</td>\n<td>Make food, transferring energy from sun to food molecules</td>\n<td>Organelles with two membranes and internal stacks of membranes<br />\ncalled <i>grana,</i> which look like layers of stripes.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cytoskeleton</td>\n<td>Reinforces cell structures; helps move materials around<br />\ncell</td>\n<td>Looks like cables running through the cell.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)</td>\n<td>Rough ER has ribosomes, makes proteins; smooth ER makes<br />\nlipids</td>\n<td>Folded sheets of membrane that ripple off of the nucleus of<br />\ncells. The rough ER has ribosomes stuck to it, so has a speckled<br />\nappearance. Smooth ER may look tubular, like coral, and has an<br />\nunspeckled surface.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Golgi</td>\n<td>Receives molecules from ER and modifies, tags, and ships them<br />\nout</td>\n<td>Looks like a stack of pancakes surrounded by little membrane<br />\nspheres.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Lysosomes</td>\n<td>Break down worn-out cell parts</td>\n<td>Small spheres within the cell; may contain partially broken<br />\ndown materials.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Mitochondria</td>\n<td>Transfer energy from food to useful form for cells (ATP)</td>\n<td>Organelles with two membranes. The inner membrane is crinkled<br />\ninto folds called <i>cristae</i><i>.</i></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Nucleus</td>\n<td>Houses the genetic material</td>\n<td>Largest organelle, surrounded by a double membrane that has<br />\nlittle holes in it. May contain dark spots called<br />\n<i>nucleoli.</i></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Plasma membrane</td>\n<td>Selective boundary of cell</td>\n<td>Outermost boundary in animal cells. Cells that have only a<br />\nplasma membrane for their boundary may be variable in shape.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ribosomes</td>\n<td>Where proteins are made</td>\n<td>Look like tiny dots in the cell. May be loose in the cytoplasm<br />\nor attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"Common Latin and Greek roots in biology vocabulary","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Students in introductory biology classes typically have to learn more new vocabulary words than students taking a foreign language! The good news is that many science vocabulary words use the same Greek and Latin roots. When you know these roots, you can figure out what a word means, even if you&#8217;ve never heard it before.</p>\n<p>This table shows you many roots to help you decipher words you hear in biology class.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Greek or Latin Root</th>\n<th>Meaning</th>\n<th>Examples</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>A-, An-</td>\n<td>Not, absent</td>\n<td>Abiotic: without life<br />\nAnoxygenic: without oxygen</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ab-, Abs-</td>\n<td>Away from</td>\n<td>Abscission: separation of leaves from tree</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Allo-</td>\n<td>Another</td>\n<td>Allosteric: another binding site</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Aqua-</td>\n<td>Water</td>\n<td>Aqueous: watery</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Bi-</td>\n<td>Two</td>\n<td>Bilayer: double layered</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Bio-</td>\n<td>Life</td>\n<td>Biology: the study of life</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>-cide</td>\n<td>Kill</td>\n<td>Bacteriocidal: kills bacteria</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cyt</td>\n<td>Cell</td>\n<td>Cytoplasm: the fluid inside a cell</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Di-</td>\n<td>Two</td>\n<td>Disaccharide: a carbohydrate made of two simple sugars</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Dis-</td>\n<td>Apart</td>\n<td>Disjoin: separate</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Endo-</td>\n<td>Inside</td>\n<td>Endocytosis: a process that brings things into a cell</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Epi-</td>\n<td>Upon, over</td>\n<td>Epidermis: the uppermost layer of tissue covering an<br />\norganism</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Eu-</td>\n<td>True</td>\n<td>Eukaryotes have a true nucleus</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ex-</td>\n<td>Out</td>\n<td>Exocytosis: a process that puts things out of cells</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Geno-</td>\n<td>Give birth, beget</td>\n<td>Genetics: the study of heredity</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Hetero-</td>\n<td>Mixed, unlike</td>\n<td>Heterozygous: a cell that has two different versions of a<br />\ngene</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Homo-</td>\n<td>Same</td>\n<td>Homozygous: a cell that has two identical versions of a<br />\ngene</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Hyper-</td>\n<td>Above</td>\n<td>Hypertonic: has a greater concentration of solutes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Hypo-</td>\n<td>Below</td>\n<td>Hypotonic: has a lower concentration of solutes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Inter-</td>\n<td>Between</td>\n<td>Interphase: the cellular phase between cell divisions</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Iso-</td>\n<td>Same</td>\n<td>Isotonic: has same concentration of solutes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Locus</td>\n<td>Place</td>\n<td>A locus on a chromosome is the place where a gene is<br />\nlocated</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Macro-</td>\n<td>Big</td>\n<td>Macrophage: a large phagocyte</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>-meter</td>\n<td>Measure</td>\n<td>Centimeter: a measurement that&#8217;s 1/100 of a meter</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Micro-</td>\n<td>Small</td>\n<td>Microbiology: the study of living things too small to see with<br />\nthe naked eye</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Mono-</td>\n<td>One</td>\n<td>Monosaccharide: a single simple sugar</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Olig-</td>\n<td>Few</td>\n<td>Oligosaccharide: a short chain of sugars</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ped-, Pod</td>\n<td>Foot</td>\n<td>Pseudopod: a &#8220;false foot&#8221; or projection of an amoeba</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Phago-</td>\n<td>Eat</td>\n<td>Phagocytosis: a process where a white blood cell engulfs and<br />\ndestroys bacteria and viruses</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>-phil</td>\n<td>Love</td>\n<td>Hydrophilic: mixes well with water</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>-phobia</td>\n<td>Fear</td>\n<td>Hydrophobic: doesn&#8217;t mix with water</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Poly-</td>\n<td>Many</td>\n<td>Polypeptide: a chain of many amino acids</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Pro-</td>\n<td>Before</td>\n<td>Prokaryotes: cells that evolved before nucleated cells</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stom-</td>\n<td>Mouth</td>\n<td>Stomates: openings in the surfaces of leaves</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Zoo-</td>\n<td>Animal</td>\n<td>Zoology: the study of animals</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Zygo-</td>\n<td>Join</td>\n<td>Zygote: a cell formed from the joining of sperm and egg</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"Organ systems in animals","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Animal bodies range in organization from the loose collections of cells of sponges, to animals that have some organ systems like flatworms, to complicated vertebrates that have many organ systems.</p>\n<p>Organ systems function by the coordinated effort of organs, which are composed of specialized groups of cells called tissues. This table shows the various organ systems and their functions.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Organ System</strong></td>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Organs</strong></td>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Function</strong></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Integumentary</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Skin, hair, nails, glands</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Protection, thermoregulation</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Muscular</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Muscle fibers</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Movement</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Skeletal</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Bones, cartilage</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Movement and support</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Nervous</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Brain, spinal cord, nerves</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Signaling and regulation</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Endocrine</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Glands</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Signaling and regulation</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Circulatory</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Heart and blood vessels</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Movement of food, respiratory gases, and wastes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Respiratory</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Lungs and respiratory tract</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Gas exchange</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Digestive</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas, gallbladder</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Breakdown of food molecules</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Excretory</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Release wastes, regulate blood volume and composition</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Immune</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Bone marrow, thymus, and lymphoid organs</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Defense against pathogens</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Reproductive</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Gonads, genitals, glands and ducts</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Produce gametes (sperm and egg)</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"The parts and types of plants","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Like animals, plants are made of cells and tissues, and those tissues form organs, such as leaves and flowers, that are specialized for different functions. Two basic organ systems exist in plants:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>The shoot system</strong>, located above ground, helps plants capture energy from the sun for photosynthesis. Organs found within the shoot system include leaves, stems, cones, and flowers.</li>\n<li><strong>The root system</strong>, located below ground, absorbs water and minerals from the soil. Roots make up the root system.</li>\n</ul>\n<p>The structure of each type of plant organ is tailored to match its function:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Leaves</strong> capture light and exchange gases with the atmosphere while minimizing water loss.\n<ul>\n<li>Many leaves are flattened, so they have maximum surface area for light capture.</li>\n<li>Tiny holes called stomata in the surfaces of leaves open and close to allow plants to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen.</li>\n<li>Guard cells surround the stomata, ready to close them if water loss from the leaves becomes too great. The surface layer, or epidermis, of a leaf often has a coating of wax to further prevent water loss.</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><strong>Stems</strong> support leaves and reproductive structures and also transport sugars and water throughout the plant.\n<ul>\n<li>Stems contain special types of tissues that give them strength. Woody plants have especially strong stems because they undergo secondary growth to thicken their stems and add layers of strong tissues.</li>\n<li>Stems contain tissues that specialize in transport. Xylem transports water from a plant’s roots up to the leaves. Phloem transports sugars from the leaves throughout the plant. Young stems contain little packages of xylem and phloem, called vascular bundles.</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Roots</strong> grow through the soil, anchoring the plant and absorbing water and minerals.\n<ul>\n<li>A root cap made of protective cells covers the tips of roots to prevent damage as they grow through the soil.</li>\n<li>The root’s surface layer — also called an epidermis — contains cells that grow out into the soil, forming thin extensions called root hairs. These root hairs increase the root surface area so that the roots have more contact with the soil, which helps improve the absorption of water and minerals.</li>\n<li>Roots contain a core of vascular tissue that carries water away from the roots and toward the shoots and brings sugars from the shoots toward the roots. Some roots, like those of a carrot, specialize in storing extra sugars for later use by the plant.</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>Reproductive parts</h3>\n<p>In some plants, specialized reproductive structures like flowers and cones produce the egg and sperm and may create protective structures around the young embryo. Flower structure also helps with pollination, the distribution of pollen (which contains sperm) to the plant’s female parts.</p>\n<p>Stamens are the male parts of flowers. They consist of the anther, which makes pollen, and a thin stalk called a filament. Scientists call the ring of male parts within the flower the androecium (which literally means &#8220;man house&#8221;).</p>\n<p>The flower’s female parts are the carpels, which may be joined together to form a pistil. The stigma is the part of the carpel that catches pollen, and the ovary is the swollen base that contains eggs in ovules. Many flowers have an elongated tube between the stigma and ovary that is called the style. Scientists call the ring of female parts within the flower the gynoecium (&#8220;woman house&#8221;).</p>\n<p>The pretty parts of flowers are often showy petals, which help attract animals to flowers so they can help distribute pollen. Scientists call the ring of petals in the flower the <em>corolla</em>.</p>\n<p>Flowers may also have a ring of green, leaf-like structures called sepals. Sepals help protect the flower when it’s still in the bud. In some flowers, the sepals look just like the petals and help attract pollinators. Scientists call the ring of sepals in the flower the <em>calyx</em>.</p>\n<p>After fertilization of the eggs by sperm, the ovules within a flower become seeds, and the ovary becomes a fruit. Seeds protect the embryo, and fruits help scatter the seeds away from the parent plant.</p>\n<p>A stalk called the peduncle supports the flower, which may also have a swollen base called the receptacle.</p>\n<p>Based on the types of tissues they have and the reproductive structures they make, plants can be organized into four major groups:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Bryophytes</strong> are plants, such as mosses, that don’t have a vascular system and don’t produce flowers or seeds. Bryophytes also don&#8217;t have a true root system. Instead, many rely upon delicate anchoring structures called rhizoids.</li>\n<li><strong>Ferns and related plants</strong> have vascular tissue, but they don’t produce seeds.</li>\n<li><strong>Gymnosperms</strong> (also known as conifers) have vascular tissue and produce cones and seeds, but they don’t produce flowers.</li>\n<li><strong>Angiosperms</strong> (or flowering plants) have vascular tissue and produce both flowers and seeds. Scientists divide the most familiar flowering plants into two groups based on the number of cotyledons they contain in their seeds:\n<ul>\n<li>Monocots, like corn and lilies, have seeds that contain one cotyledon.</li>\n<li>Dicots — beans, oak trees, and daisies — have seeds that contain two cotyledons.</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>Cotyledons, sometimes called seed leaves, supply nutrition to the embryo and then emerge as the first leaves begin to grow.</p>\n<h3>Differences between monocots and dicots</h3>\n<p>In addition to their difference in seed structure, monocots and dicots have distinct patterns in their structures and the way they grow.</p>\n<p>This table presents several of the key structural differences between monocots and dicots.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Feature</strong></td>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Monocots</strong></td>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Dicots</strong></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Cotyledons in seeds</td>\n<td width=\"208\">One</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Two</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Bundles of vascular tissue in stem</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Scattered throughout</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Form definite ring pattern</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Root system</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Fibrous</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Taproot</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Leaf veins</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Run parallel</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Form a net pattern</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Flower parts</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Are in threes and multiples of threes</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Are in fours and fives and multiples of fours and fives</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":null,"sponsorEbookTitle":null,"sponsorEbookLink":null,"sponsorEbookImage":null},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-05-31T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208348},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:47:11+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-27T16:10:48+00:00","timestamp":"2022-06-22T19:37:39+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"General Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33771"},"slug":"general-science","categoryId":33771}],"title":"Evolution For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"evolution for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"evolution-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Understand the terms involved in this scientific theory, as well as a bit of the scientific method itself.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Whether you're talking about evolution — or any other element of science — you should understand the process of scientific investigation, which proves or disproves a scientific theory. Take a look at a chart of our hominid ancestors as discovered through fossil records, and learn some key terms to grasp the course of evolution.","description":"Whether you're talking about evolution — or any other element of science — you should understand the process of scientific investigation, which proves or disproves a scientific theory. Take a look at a chart of our hominid ancestors as discovered through fossil records, and learn some key terms to grasp the course of evolution.","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33771,"title":"General Science","slug":"general-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33771"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":208742,"title":"Einstein For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"einstein-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","general-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208742"}},{"articleId":200503,"title":"Designing Experiments Using the Scientific Method","slug":"designing-experiments-using-the-scientific-method","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","general-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/200503"}},{"articleId":200193,"title":"Einstein Storms the Scientific World","slug":"einstein-storms-the-scientific-world","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","general-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/200193"}},{"articleId":200018,"title":"Getting to Know Einstein's Wives","slug":"getting-to-know-einsteins-wives","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","general-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/200018"}},{"articleId":199859,"title":"Making Interstellar Travel Possible","slug":"making-interstellar-travel-possible","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","general-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/199859"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;general-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62b36f8386c3f\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;general-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62b36f8387599\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":178721,"title":"The Scientific Process in Brief","slug":"the-scientific-process-in-brief","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","general-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/178721"}},{"articleId":178746,"title":"Understanding Evolution Terminology","slug":"understanding-evolution-terminology","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/178746"}}],"content":[{"title":"The scientific process in brief","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Before scientists can identify something as theory, they have to gain overwhelming evidence through scientific investigation. And any good theory is only one good experiment away from being rejected. That is, scientists must be able to imagine some set of results that would cause them to reject, or <i>falsify</i>, the theory; then they must see that over and over again. The factor that makes a science a <i>science</i> is the adherence to the scientific process:</p>\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Make observations about the natural world.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Formulate a hypothesis.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">The hypothesis serves as the scientist&#8217;s starting point; maybe it&#8217;s right, and maybe it&#8217;s wrong. They key is to do enough testing to find out.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Gather additional data to test this hypothesis.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">As your data accumulates, it either supports your hypothesis, or it forces you to revise or abandon the hypothesis. <b><i>Remember:</i></b> The hypothesis scientists come up with must be falsifiable. That is, scientists must be able to imagine some set of results that would cause them to reject the theory, and then they must test those ideas out.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Continue testing (if the data from Step 3 supports your hypothesis) or revise your hypothesis and test again.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">After an overwhelming amount of information accumulates in support of the hypothesis, you elevate the hypothesis to a theory.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">If, at anytime in the future, new data arises that causes you to revise or reject your theory, then you revise or reject it and start again at Step 1.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Real scientists never ignore facts or observations in order to protect a hypothesis or theory, even one that they&#8217;re particularly fond of.</p>\n</li>\n</ol>\n"},{"title":"Understanding evolution terminology","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p class=\"Remember\">Evolution is the process by which populations and species change over time and the principles of evolution explain why life on Earth is so diverse and why organisms are the way they are. You need to understand evolution because it is <i>the </i>key scientific principle in biology (the study of living things), so study these evolution fundamentals:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Adaptations:</b> Changes resulting from natural selection.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Allele (plural alleles):</b> The specific DNA sequence found at a given locus in an individual. A haploid individual has one allele at every locus while a diploid individual has two alleles at each locus (one on each set of chromosomes), which can be the same or different.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Artificial selection:</b> The process of selection when people control which characters are favored—for example selectively breeding cows that make the most milk to produce the next generation of dairy cows.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Chromosome:</b> The cellular structures that contain DNA. Humans, a diploid organism, have 23 pairs of chromosomes.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Diploid genome:</b> The genome of an organism that has of two sets of chromosomes. In sexually reproducing organisms, diploid parents each contribute one set of chromosomes to offspring, producing a new diploid individual whose genome is a combination of some of the DNA from each parent. Examples of diploid organisms include mammals, birds, many plants, and so on.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid):</b> A long molecule made up of four different subunits (or nucleotides, which you can think of as a four-letter alphabet). The sequence of the four different nucleotides governs the specific details of traits. While almost all organisms have DNA as the genetic material, a few (some viruses) use a slightly different molecule (RNA, ribonucleic acid) but the process is otherwise the same.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>DNA sequence:</b> The exact arrangement of the four nucleotides in a specific individual. The sequence information can be for the entire genome or just some location of interest.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Evolution:</b> A change in the percentage of inherited (heritable) traits in a group of organisms over time. For evolution, time is measured in generations, which is one of the reasons that bacteria evolve faster than elephants.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Evolutionary theory:</b> The field of scientific investigation that works to understand what processes are responsible for the evolutionary changes we observe and what the consequences of those changes are.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Fitness:</b> A measure of an organism&#8217;s ability to contribute offspring to the next generation.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Gene:</b> The classic unit of heredity that governs the traits that are passed from parent to offspring. The term predates an understanding of how the process of heredity actually works, which involves DNA. Therefore, in science articles, gene primarily serves as an easy-to-understand, if not exactly precise stand in for locus and allele, which more precisely identify the exact units of heredity.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Genetic drift:</b> Random factors—volcanoes erupting, trees falling, or airplanes crashing, for example—that impact the gene frequency in subsequent populations.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Genome:</b> The sum total of all of an organism&#8217;s DNA.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Genotype:</b> The specific combination of alleles that an individual organism has. Genotype does not map directly to phenotype (or physical traits) because of the effect of environmental factors.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Haploid genome:</b> The genome of an organism with a single set of chromosomes. Examples of haploid organisms include bacteria and fungi which produce asexually (new individuals simply divide from existing ones). Note: Diploid individuals produce haploid gametes (sperm and egg).</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Locus (plural loci ):</b> A particular location in an organism&#8217;s genome where the information for a particular trait resides. The eye color locus, for example, is the place in an individual organism&#8217;s genome that has the DNA sequence controlling eye color.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Mutations:</b> Changes in the DNA sequence caused by errors in DNA replication or such factors (like radiation) that can cause DNA damage.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Natural selection:</b> The process of selection when the natural environment is the selective force.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Neutral evolution:</b> Evolution as the result of genetic drift. When two different alleles are selectively neutral—that is, they don&#8217;t differ in fitness—changes in their relative frequencies can only be caused by random events.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Phenotype:</b> The physical traits that the organism has, including things like body structure, wing span, running speed, and so on. Phenotype is a product of both the genotype and the effects of the environment.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Selection:</b> When a particular character is favored such that organisms that possess that character are more likely to contribute offspring to the next generation. If the character under selection is heritable, then the frequency of that character in future generations increases. Selection acts on phenotypes rather than genotypes.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Speciation:</b> When a group of individuals in a species evolves differently from the rest of the species, leading to the accumulation of enough genetic differences to prevent the two groups from interbreeding.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":null,"sponsorEbookTitle":null,"sponsorEbookLink":null,"sponsorEbookImage":null},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"One 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1,484 results
1,484 results
Environmental Science 10 Ways to Live Sustainably

Article / Updated 08-11-2022

Environmental science is all about finding ways to live more sustainably, which means using resources today in a way that maintains their supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t mean living without luxuries but rather being aware of your resource consumption and reducing unnecessary waste. Reduce household energy use. Energy conservation is itself a source of energy. Here are several simple ways to reduce your household energy use: Turn off appliances and lights that you’re not using. Install energy-efficient appliances. Use a programmable thermostat that lowers or raises the temperature when you’re not home. Set your thermostat lower than usual in the winter and bundle up. Open windows to allow a breeze instead of turning on the air conditioning. Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer. Use an electric teakettle rather than a stovetop kettle to boil water. Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs). Eat locally. A powerful way to live more sustainably is to eat locally. The convenience of supermarkets has changed how people think about food. You can stroll through aisles stocked with fruits, vegetables, and other products from all over the world any time of year. But these products consume huge amounts of fossil fuel energy to get from those global locations to your corner supermarket. Dispose with disposables. Previous generations didn’t dream of single-use razors, forks, cups, bags, and food storage containers, but these days, you can find a plastic version of almost any object and then throw that object away after you use it. Many of the environmental health issues today stem from toxins released into the environment by trash. Even trash that’s properly disposed of, such as that in a landfill, requires careful monitoring to ensure that dangerous chemicals don’t enter the surrounding environment. When you make a purchase, consider the item’s life expectancy: How long can the item be used? Will it have more than one use? When you’re done with it, will it end up in the trash? Start investing in reusable products for the items you most often throw away. Plant seeds. Try growing your own food. Simply plant a few seeds in a corner of your yard or in a container on your porch or windowsill. You don’t need acres; a few square feet on a patio, along the driveway, or in a window box can provide enough space to grow edible herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Recycle. Recycle as much as possible! If your neighborhood or apartment complex doesn’t offer recycling pickup, either find a drop-off location or request the curbside service. Buying products labeled post-consumer lets companies know that recycling is the way to go! For other items, such as CFLs, batteries, cellphones, and electronics, find an appropriate recycler. Be sure to ask electronics recyclers where these materials go for recycling and avoid companies that ship electronic waste overseas for unregulated “recycling” and salvage operations. Goodwill Industries International is one place that accepts electronics for responsible recycling. Resell and donate items. Items that you no longer need can get an extended life through resale and donation. By extending the life of any product, you help reduce dependence on disposable or cheaply made single-use products that end up in landfills. Try reselling clothing and children’s things through a secondhand or consignment retailer or consider donating them to a nonprofit resale organization (such as Goodwill) or charity organization (such as the Salvation Army or American Cancer Society) that will redistribute them to those in need. Drink from the tap. Dependence on bottled water has added more than a million tons of plastic to the waste stream every year. One reason people rely on bottled water is because they believe it’s safer and better tasting than tap water. But most municipal water supplies in the U.S. provide safe, clean, fresh water (and many bottled waters are just bottled from city water supplies anyway). If you don’t like the flavor of your tap water, consider the one-time investment in a filtration system. If you like the convenience of bottled water, purchase refillable bottles and keep one in your fridge, one in your car, and one at the office. Encourage your employer to install filters and offer glasses or reusable bottles at work, too. Save water. An easy way to live more sustainably is to conserve household water use. Consider installing water-efficient toilets or dual-flush toilets that let you choose whether to use a full flush (for solid waste) or half-flush (for liquid waste). Newer clothes washers can automatically sense the smallest level of water needed for each load. Smaller changes, such as switching to water-saving shower heads and adding aerators to your sink faucets, are also effective ways to significantly reduce household water use. To conserve water outdoors, use landscaping adapted to your local environment. When buying plants, look for drought-tolerant species and varieties and be sure to plant them in proper soil and sun conditions to reduce their need for excess watering. Set up sprinkler systems so they don’t water the sidewalk, the driveway, and other paved, impermeable surfaces. Rely less on your car. Using fossil fuels to support one person in each car on the road is clearly no longer sustainable. Investigate mass transit options in your town or city, such as a bus system, a light rail train system, or carpool and vanpool services for commuters. When traveling close to home, walk or ride your bike. Purchase fair-trade products. When you purchase items that are imported from all over the world — particularly coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, chocolate, and fruit — look for the fair-trade certification. This designation tells you that these items were grown using sustainable methods of agriculture and that local people are receiving fair prices for the goods they produce. Items that don’t have the fair-trade certification may have been produced unsustainably and may be the product of exploitative labor practices that don’t benefit the local people.

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Biology Important Parts of Eukaryotic Cells

Article / Updated 08-10-2022

All eukaryotic cells have organelles, a nucleus, and many internal membranes. These components divide the eukaryotic cell into sections, with each specializing in different functions. Each function is vital to the cell's life. The plasma membrane is made of phospholipids and protein and serves as the selective boundary of the cell. The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores. The nucleus stores and protects the DNA of the cell. The endomembrane system consists of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and vesicles. It makes lipids, membrane proteins, and exported proteins and then “addresses” them and ships them where they need to go. Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes and have their own DNA and ribosomes. They transfer energy from food molecules to ATP. Chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes, contain thylakoids, and have their own DNA and protein. They transform energy from the sun and CO2 from atmosphere into food molecules (sugars). The cytoskeleton is a network of proteins: actin microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Cytoskeletal proteins support the structure of the cell, help with cell division, and control cellular movements.

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Biology Your Body, Your Cells: Eukaryotic Cells

Article / Updated 08-10-2022

The eukaryotic cells of animals, plants, fungi, and microscopic creatures called protists have many similarities in structure and function. They have the structures common to all cells: a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. All eukaryotic organisms contain cells that have a nucleus, organelles, and many internal membranes. With all the wonderful diversity of life on Earth, however, you’re probably not surprised to discover that eukaryotic cells have many differences. By comparing the structure of a typical animal cell with that of a typical plant cell, you can see some of the differences among eukaryotic cells. Cell walls, additional reinforcing layers outside the plasma membrane, are present in the cells of plants, fungi, and some protists, but not in animal cells. Chloroplasts, which are needed for photosynthesis, are found in the cells of plants and algae, but not animals. Large, central vacuoles, which contain fluid and are separated from the cytoplasm with a membrane, are found in the cells of plants and algae, but not animals. Centrioles, small protein structures that appear during cell division, are found in the cells of animals, but not plants. Home office: The nucleus The nucleus houses and protects the cell’s DNA, which contains all of the instructions necessary for the cell to function. The DNA is like a set of blueprints for the cell, so you can think of the nucleus as the office where the blueprints are kept. If information from the blueprints is required, the information is copied into RNA molecules and moved out of the nucleus. The DNA plans stay safely locked away. The boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope, which is made of two phospholipid bilayers similar to those that make up the plasma membrane. The phospholipids bilayers of the nuclear envelope are supported by a scaffold of protein cables, called the nuclear lamina, on the inner surface of the nucleus. The nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The structures within the nucleus are DNA in the form of chromosomes or chromatin: When a cell is about to divide to make a copy of itself, it copies its DNA and bundles the DNA up tightly so that the cell can move the DNA around more easily. The tightly bundled DNA molecules are visible through a microscope as little structures in the nucleus called Most of the time, however, when a cell is just functioning and not about to divide, the DNA is very loose within the nucleus, like a bunch of long, very thin spaghetti noodles. When the DNA is in this form, it is called chromatin. Nucleoli where ribosomal subunits are made: Information in the DNA needs to be read in order to make the small and large subunits needed to build ribosomes. The cell builds the ribosomal subunits in areas of the nucleus called nucleoli. Then, the cell ships the subunits out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where they join together for protein synthesis. When you stain cells and look at them under the microscope, nucleoli look like large spots within the nucleus. The DNA plans for the cell are kept in the nucleus, but most of the activity of the cell occurs in the cytoplasm. Because the DNA is separate from the rest of the cell, a lot of traffic crosses back and forth between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Molecules enter and exit the nucleus through small holes, called nuclear pores, that pass through the nuclear membrane. Groups of proteins organize into little rings that penetrate through the nuclear envelope to form the nuclear pores. The traffic in and out of the nuclear pores include the following: RNA molecules and ribosomal subunits made in the nucleus must exit to the cytoplasm. Proteins made in the cytoplasm but needed for certain processes, such as copying the DNA, must cross into the nucleus. Nucleotides, building blocks for DNA and RNA, must cross into the nucleus so that the cell can make new DNA and RNA molecules. ATP molecules that provide energy for processes inside the nucleus like assembly of DNA molecules. Traffic through the nuclear pores is controlled by proteins called importins and exportins. Proteins that are to be moved into or out of the nucleus have specific chemical tags on them that act like zip codes, telling the importins and exportins which way to move the protein with the tag. The movement of molecules into and out of the cell requires the input of energy from the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Post office: The endomembrane system The endomembrane system, shown in the following figure, of the eukaryotic cell constructs proteins and lipids and then ships them where they need to go. Because this system is like a large package-shipping company, you can think of it as the post office of the cell. The endomembrane system has several components: The endoplasmic reticulum is a set of folded membranes that begins at the nucleus and extends into the cytoplasm. It begins with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope and then twists back and forth like switchbacks on a steep mountain trail. The endoplasmic reticulum comes in two types: Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is called rough because it’s studded with ribosomes. Ribosomes that begin to make a protein that has a special destination, such as a particular organelle or membrane, will attach themselves to the rough endoplasmic reticulum while they make the protein. As the protein is made, it’s pushed into the middle of the rough ER, which is called the Once inside the lumen, the protein is folded and tagged with carbohydrates. It will then get pushed into a little membrane bubble, called a transport vesicle, to travel to the Golgi apparatus for further processing. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) doesn’t have attached ribosomes. It makes lipids — for example, phospholipids for cell membranes. Lipids from the SER may also travel to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus looks a little bit like a stack of pancakes because it’s made of a stack of flattened membrane sacs, called cisternae. The side of the stack closest to the nucleus is called the cis face of the Golgi, whereas the side farthest from the nucleus is called the trans Molecules arrive at the cis face of the Golgi and incorporate into the nearest cisterna. Lipids become part of the membrane itself, while proteins get pushed into the middle, or lumen, of the cisterna. The Golgi apparatus constantly changes as new cisternae form at the cis face, and old cisternae are removed from the trans face. As molecules make their journey through this flowing system, they’re modified and marked with chemical tags, so that they’ll get shipped to their proper destination. Vesicles are little bubbles of membrane in the cell and come in several types: Transport vesicles carry molecules around the cell. They’re like the large envelopes that you put your letters in. Transport vesicles travel from the ER to the Golgi and then to the plasma membrane to bring molecules where they need to go. They travel by gliding along protein cables that are part of the cytoskeleton. Lysosomes are the garbage disposals of the cell. They contain digestive enzymes that can break down large molecules, organelles, and even bacterial cells. Secretory vesicles bring materials to the plasma membrane so that the cell can release, or secrete, the materials. Peroxisomes are small organelles encircled by a single membrane. Often, they help break down lipids, such as fatty acids. Also, depending on the type of cell they are in, peroxisomes may be specialists in breaking down particular molecules. For example, peroxisomes in liver cells break down toxins, such as the ethanol from alcoholic beverages. In plants cells, glyoxisomes, a special kind of peroxisome, help convert stored oils into molecules that plants can easily use for energy. Altogether, the endomembrane system works as a sophisticated manufacturing, processing, and shipping plant. This system is particularly important in specialized cells that make lots of a particular protein and then ship them out to other cells. These types of cells actually have more endoplasmic reticulum than other cells so that they can efficiently produce and export large amounts of protein. As an example of how the endomembrane system functions, follow the pathway of synthesis and transport for an exported protein: A ribosome begins to build a protein, such as insulin, that will be exported from the cell. At the beginning of the protein is a recognizable marker that causes the ribosome to dock at the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosome continues to make the protein, and the protein is pushed into the lumen of the RER. Inside the lumen, the protein folds up, and carbohydrates are attached to it. The protein is pushed into the membrane of the RER, which pinches around and seals to form a vesicle, and the vesicle carries the protein from the RER to the Golgi. The vesicle fuses with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus, and the protein is delivered to the lumen of the Golgi, where the protein is modified. The protein eventually leaves in a vesicle formed at the trans face, which travels to the plasma membrane, fuses with the membrane, and releases the protein to the outside of the cell. The fireplace: Mitochondria The mitochondrion (see the following figure) is the organelle where eukaryotes extract energy from their food by cellular respiration. Mitochondria are like the power plants of the cell because they transfer energy from food to ATP. ATP is an easy form of energy for cells to use, so mitochondria help cells get usable energy. Part of the process that extracts the energy from food requires a membrane, so mitochondria have lots of internal folded membrane to give them more area to run this process. Mitochondria actually have two membranes, the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The inner membrane is the one that is folded back and forth to create more area for energy extraction; the folds of this membrane are called cristae. The outer membrane separates the interior of the mitochondrion from the cytoplasm of the cell. The two membranes of the mitochondrion create different compartments within the mitochondrion: The space between the two membranes of the mitochondrion is the intermembrane space. The inside of the mitochondrion is the Mitochondria also contain ribosomes for protein synthesis and a small, circular piece of DNA that contains the code for some mitochondrial proteins. The ribosomes and DNA of mitochondria resemble those found in bacterial cells. In the kitchen: Chloroplasts Chloroplasts, shown in the following figure, are the place where eukaryotes make food molecules by the process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are found in the cells of plants and algae. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have two membranes, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. In addition, they have little sacs of membranes called thylakoids stacked up in towers called grana. The multiple membranes of the chloroplast divide it into several different spaces: The intermembrane space is between the inner and outer membranes. The central, fluid-filled part of the chloroplast is called the The interior of the thylakoid is another fluid-filled space. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain their own ribosomes for protein synthesis and a small, circular piece of DNA that contains the code for some chloroplast proteins. Scaffolding and railroad tracks: The cytoskeleton The structure and function of cells are supported by a network of protein cables called the cytoskeleton, shown in the following figure. These proteins underlie membranes, giving them shape and support, much like scaffolding can support a building. Cytoskeletal proteins run like tracks through cells, enabling the movement of vesicles and organelles like trains on a railroad track. When cells swim by flicking whip-like extensions called cilia and eukaryotic flagella, they’re using cytoskeletal proteins. In fact, you use cytoskeletal proteins literally every time you move a muscle. Cytoskeletal proteins come in three main types, with each one playing a different role in cells: Microfilaments are made of the protein Microfilaments are the proteins that make muscle cells contract, help pinch animal cells in two during cell division, allow cells like amoebae to crawl, and act as railroad tracks for organelles in some types of cells. Microtubules are made of the protein tubulin. Microtubules are the proteins inside of cilia and flagella. They move chromosomes during cell division and act as railroad tracks for the movement of vesicles and some organelles. Intermediate filaments are made of various proteins. They often act as reinforcing proteins. For example, the protein lamin that strengthens the nuclear membrane is an intermediate filament. Likewise, the keratin that strengthens your skin cells and makes them resistant to damage is an intermediate filament. You can easily mix up the words “microtubules” and “microfilaments.” Remember that “microtubules” are made of “tubul-in,” and they’re found in the “tube-shaped” cilia and flagella. (Okay, I’m stretching it on that last bit, but if it helps to remember it. . . .) Motor proteins Actin microfilaments and microtubules are long, cable-like proteins. They partner with motor proteins, proteins that use ATP to “walk” along the cables by repeatedly binding, changing shape, and releasing. Thus, the motor proteins use chemical energy to do cellular work in the form of movement. Several motor proteins work with microfilaments and microtubules: Myosin often acts as a partner to actin. For example, when myosin walks along actin microfilaments in muscle cells, it causes the actin microfilament to slide. The sliding of actin microfilaments is what causes muscle contraction. Myosin also attaches to cellular components, such as chloroplasts in plant cells, and then walks along microfilaments. The movement of the motor proteins causes the cellular components to flow around the cell in a process called cytoplasmic streaming. Dynein partners with microtubules inside of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. When dynein walks along microtubules on one side of a cilium or flagellum, it causes the microtubules to bend. The bending of different parts of cilia and flagella makes them flick back and forth like little whips. Kinesin is another partner with microtubules. One end of the kinesin molecule attaches to vesicles, while the other end walks along the microtubules. The movement of kinesin causes the vesicles to slide along the microtubules like freight cars on a railroad track. Cilia and flagella Cilia and flagella are essentially the same structure, but cilia are typically shorter and more numerous on the surface of the cell whereas flagella are typically longer in length and fewer in number. Cilia are found on cells that make up the surfaces of tissues, such as cells in the respiratory and genital tracts of humans, where the cilia beat to move fluid and materials along the surface. For example, in the human respiratory tract, the beating of cilia moves mucus upward where you can cough it out of the body. Some cells, such as microscopic protists and sperm cells, swim using cilia and flagella. The internal structure of cilia and flagella is distinctive. If you cut a cilium or a flagellum crosswise and look at the circular end with an electron microscope, you’ll see the same pattern of microtubules in in both cilia and flagella, shown in the following figure. The microtubules are grouped in pairs, called doublets, that are similar to two drinking straws laid tightly together side by side. The microtubules appear in a 9+2 arrangement, where nine pairs of microtubules (nine doublets) are arranged around the outside of the circle, while one pair of microtubules is in the center of the circle. Rebar and concrete: Cell walls and extracellular matrices The plasma membrane is the selective boundary for all cells that chooses what enters and exits the cell. However, most cells have additional layers outside of the plasma membrane. These extracellular layers provide additional strength to cells and may attach cells to neighboring cells in multicellular organisms. Typically, these layers are composed of long cables of carbohydrates or proteins embedded in a sticky matrix. The long, cable-like molecules work like rebar in concrete to create a strong substance. Two main types of extracellular layers support eukaryotic cells: Cell walls are extra reinforcing layers that help protect the cell from bursting. Among eukaryotes, cell walls appear around the cells of plants, fungi, and many protists. The primary cell walls of plants and algae are made of cellulose. If the plant is a woody plant, lignin is also present. (Lignin is a complex molecule that hardens the cell walls of plants.) Fungal cell walls are made of chitin. The layer around animal cells is the extracellular matrix (ECM), shown in the following figure. This layer is made of long proteins, such as collagen, embedded in a polysaccharide gel. The ECM supports animal cells and helps bind them together. Animal cells actually attach themselves to the ECM via proteins, called integrins, that are embedded in the plasma membrane. The integrins bind to the actin microfilaments inside the cell and to ECM proteins called fibronectins that are outside the cell.

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Biology Biology For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 08-04-2022

Biology is the study of the living world. All living things share certain common properties: They are made of cells that contain DNA; they maintain order inside their cells and bodies; they regulate their systems; they respond to signals in the environment; they transfer energy between themselves and their environment; they grow and develop; they reproduce; they have traits that have evolved over time.

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Physics String Theory For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 06-30-2022

String theory, often called the “theory of everything,” is a relatively young science that includes such unusual concepts as superstrings, branes, and extra dimensions. Scientists are hopeful that string theory will unlock one of the biggest mysteries of the universe, namely how gravity and quantum physics fit together.

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Physics Physics I: 501 Practice Problems For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 06-28-2022

Solving physics problems correctly is a lot easier when you have a couple tricks under your belt. In fact, you can greatly improve your odds of getting the right answer if you make sure that what you calculated is plausible in the real world. Another trick is to draw your own visual when one isn’t provided for you — no artistic ability required. It also helps to have this handy reference for some of the most common unit prefixes and unit conversions you’re bound to encounter in your physics homework.

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Astronomy The Magic of the Moon and the Total Lunar Eclipse

Article / Updated 06-24-2022

Every couple of years or so, we earthlings are treated to the beauty of a total lunar eclipse. The moon appears red as it passes into Earth's shadow, and for some, this elicits the wonder of our orbiting celestial friend and its significance to world culture. A lunar eclipse is the cousin to a solar eclipse, albeit much less dramatic. Still, it makes for a great experience. As the full moon passes into the earth’s shadow, the moon can appear to darken and then change color, turning a dark red. The moon looks red because the sun’s light gets bent (refracted) through the earth’s atmosphere. The red light gets bent the most, so that’s the light that illuminates the moon’s surface during a lunar eclipse. You could think of it as the light from every sunrise and sunset on Earth lighting up the moon’s surface! For more mind-bending astronomy facts about the moon and other celestial bodies, check out Astronomy For Dummies. Stargazing a lunar eclipse Total lunar eclipses aren’t very common. But two things make them easier to observe than solar eclipses: When a lunar eclipse happens, it’s often visible from anywhere on the night side of the earth. Lunar eclipses are safe to observe with your eyes, binoculars and telescopes. Want to learn how to best explore the distant wonders of the night sky? Stargazing For Dummies offers readers a detailed starter guide for the future stargazer. The moon in world culture Beyond its striking appearance during a total lunar eclipse, check out this interesting information about the moon's significance in world culture. The moon in classical music: From Beethoven to Chopin Did you know classical music has a few sub-genres dedicated entirely to capturing the moon’s natural beauty and emotive characteristics? For example, you’ve likely heard of Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata or, perhaps, Debussy’s Clair de lune. These timeless pieces of music take their listeners through a moonlight-draped journey full of evocative passages, foreboding moments and somewhat mysterious tones — all inspired by that lonely white marble above. Chopin’s Nocturnes are another great example. As their name suggests, these are compositions centered entirely around the moon, nighttime, and dreaming. For more on classical music and its many timeless compositions, check out Classical Music For Dummies. The Moon in astrology: Emotions, instincts and habits Of course, no discussion about the moon would be complete without mentioning its significance in Western astrology. And yes — there’s more to it than the 12 zodiac signs. The moon's nodes, for example, refer to where its path crosses the ecliptic, which is the apparent path of the sun among the constellations over the course of a year. The north or ascending node marks the place where the moon crosses from south to north, seemingly ascending through the sky. The south, or descending node marks where the moon crosses from north to south, descending through the sky. What does this mean for astrologers? Without getting into the nitty gritty details, the moon is often associated with the “emotional self” in our astrological charts, and can represent the mysterious, hidden, and spiritual self in the tarot. To learn more about the moon’s significance in Western astrology, check out Astrology For Dummies.

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Astronomy What Are Star Parties?

Article / Updated 06-23-2022

Star parties are outdoor conventions for amateur astronomers. They set up their telescopes (some homemade and some not) in a field, and people take turns skywatching. (Be prepared to hear plenty of "Oohs" and "Ahs.") Judges choose the best homemade telescopes and equipment, earning their owners esteem and sometimes even a prize. If rain falls in the evening, partygoers may watch slide shows in a nearby hall or a big tent. Arrangements vary, but often, some attendees camp in the field; others rent inexpensive cabins or commute from nearby motels. Star parties may last for a night or two, or sometimes as long as a week. They attract a few hundred to a few thousand (yes, thousand!) telescope makers and amateur astronomers. And the larger star parties have websites with photos of previous events and details on coming attractions. Some resemble AstroFests, with exhibitors and distinguished speakers, as well as stargazing. The leading star parties in the United States include: Stellafane: This Vermont star party has been going strong since 1926. Texas Star Party: Commune with the stars on the mile-high Prude Ranch in the Lone Star State. Enchanted Skies Star Party: Head to the desert for dark sky observing near Magdalena, New Mexico, and fine speakers. Nebraska Star Party: This party boasts "a fantastic light pollution–free sweep of the summer night sky." Here are some of the leading star parties in the United Kingdom: The LAS Equinox Sky Camp: Held at Kelling Heath, Norfolk, this party bills itself as "the largest star party in the U.K." Kielder Star Camp: This twice-yearly event in the Northumberland International Dark Sky Park occurs in a forest thought to be "the darkest venue for any English star party." If you live in or plan to visit the Southern Hemisphere, check out these star parties: South Pacific Star Party: It's held near Ilford, NSW, Australia, on a property reserved for skywatching by the Astronomical Society of New South Wales. Central Star Party: Try this party on New Zealand's North Island, a bit off the beaten path. In the long run, visit at least one of these star parties, but in the meantime, you can ask at a local astronomy club meeting about a similar, although perhaps smaller, event that may be planned in your own area.

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Biology Biology Workbook For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 06-01-2022

Biology is the study of life, from tiny bacteria to giant redwood trees to human beings. Understanding biology begins with knowing some of the basics, such as eukaryotic cell structure and common Latin and Greek roots that will help you decipher the sometimes-tough vocabulary.

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General Science Evolution For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-27-2022

Whether you're talking about evolution — or any other element of science — you should understand the process of scientific investigation, which proves or disproves a scientific theory. Take a look at a chart of our hominid ancestors as discovered through fossil records, and learn some key terms to grasp the course of evolution.

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