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History","slug":"scottish","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33682"},"image":{"src":"/img/background-image-2.fabfbd5c.png","width":0,"height":0},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":10,"bookCount":1},{"categoryId":33683,"title":"World","slug":"world","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33683"},"image":{"src":"/img/background-image-1.daf74cf0.png","width":0,"height":0},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":18,"bookCount":2},{"categoryId":33684,"title":"World War I History","slug":"world-war-i","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33684"},"image":{"src":"/img/background-image-2.fabfbd5c.png","width":0,"height":0},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":9,"bookCount":1},{"categoryId":33685,"title":"World War II History","slug":"world-war-ii","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33685"},"image":{"src":"/img/background-image-1.daf74cf0.png","width":0,"height":0},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":12,"bookCount":1}],"description":"Travel back in time to glimpse the roots of the modern world. Witness global conflicts, the founding of nations, and other big moments in the human story.","relatedArticles":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles?category=33670&offset=0&size=5"},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":375,"bookCount":32},"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"}},"relatedCategoriesLoadedStatus":"success"},"listState":{"list":{"count":10,"total":371,"items":[{"headers":{"creationTime":"2020-04-06T14:20:42+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-08-10T20:26:41+00:00","timestamp":"2023-08-10T21:01:03+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","strippedTitle":"scandals: defining donald trump’s presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Here's a brief look at the two primary scandals that have defined Trump's presidency. Take a look at the Russian and Ukraine scandals.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"From the beginning, the Trump administration was mired in scandals that have undermined his presidency. The constant wave of scandals has resulted in negative coverage of his presidency, overshadowing his economic and foreign policy successes.\r\n\r\nInstead of being able to focus on domestic and foreign policy, President Trump has constantly dealt with putting out fires often caused by his own actions. The two biggest scandals were the Russia and the Ukraine scandals.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269896\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"wp-image-269896 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/us-presidents-trump-scandal.jpg\" alt=\"Trump scandal\" width=\"556\" height=\"278\" /> ©Shutterstock/Aquir[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >The Russia scandal</h2>\r\nAlmost as soon as Donald Trump had assumed the presidency, the Russia scandal broke out. It involved some of the president’s closest aides, including his <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/political-science/what-is-the-role-of-the-national-security-advisor-178895/\">national security advisor</a>.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">During the 2016 presidential election, Russian operatives hacked Hillary Clinton’s server and later also the server for the Democratic National Committee. U.S. intelligence would later find out that the Russian government was actively trying to interfere in the U.S. presidential election by creating dissent among the U.S. public and trying to undermine Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton.</p>\r\nIn May 2017 Trump fired FBI Director James Comey, who had been leading an investigation into links between the Russian government and Trump associates. Comey later testified that he was fired after he refused to drop the investigation of President Trump’s National Security Advisor Michael Flynn, who had resigned after only 24 days in office after it was discovered that he had lied to Congress about meetings with the Russian Ambassador to the United States.\r\n\r\nFormer FBI Director Robert Mueller was appointed in May of 2017 to investigate whether there was any collusion between the Trump campaign and the Russian government and whether the Trump campaign had attempted to obstruct justice.\r\n\r\nThe findings of the investigation were released in April 2019 and stated that while there was clear interference by the Russian government in the <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/political-science/american-government/how-the-electoral-college-affected-the-2000-and-2016-elections-267936/\">2016 presidential elections</a>, there was no clear evidence that the Trump campaign had conspired with the Russian government. The report does note that while there was no evidence the Trump campaign coordinated with the Russian government, it clearly did benefit from Russian interference.\r\n\r\nThe findings on obstruction of justice were less clear. Mueller concluded that he could not charge a sitting president with a crime because a sitting president cannot stand trial. Only Congress can charge and then impeach and even remove a president.\r\n\r\nAccording to the report: “The investigation does not conclude that the president committed a crime; however, it does also not exonerate him.” In other words Mueller took the easy way out and left it up to Congress to take the next or no steps.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >The Ukraine scandal</h2>\r\nAfter having weathered the Russia scandal, it looked like President Trump’s presidency was safe until the 2020 election. However, in September 2019, the Ukraine scandal broke out. The scandal involves President Trump’s alleged attempts to coerce Ukraine into providing information on his possible democratic challenger Joe Biden and his son Hunter.\r\n\r\nAccording to the charges, President Trump threatened to withhold $400 million in military aid from Ukraine, unless it reopened an investigation into Hunter Biden’s activities in Ukraine.\r\n\r\nAn anonymous whistle blower brought this to the attention of Congress and the media, and in September 2019, the House of Representatives began hearings on whether President Trump solicited foreign intervention in the 2020 campaign. This would be an impeachable offense.\r\n\r\nFull impeachment hearings were started on October 31, 2019. These were open to the public and were nationally televised. On December 18, 2019, the House of Representatives voted 230 to 197 to impeach President Trump for abuse of power and obstruction of Congress.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">President Trump was the third president to be impeached by the House of Representatives. Andrew Johnson and <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/history/american/president-bill-clintons-foreign-and-domestic-policies-151473/\">Bill Clinton</a> were the other two.</p>\r\nAfter being impeached by the House of Representatives, the Senate started on January 16, 2020, to debate whether to remove President Trump from office. On February 5, 2020, the Senate acquitted President Trump by a 52 to 48 vote. It is now up to the U.S. electorate to decide whether he deserves a second term.","description":"From the beginning, the Trump administration was mired in scandals that have undermined his presidency. The constant wave of scandals has resulted in negative coverage of his presidency, overshadowing his economic and foreign policy successes.\r\n\r\nInstead of being able to focus on domestic and foreign policy, President Trump has constantly dealt with putting out fires often caused by his own actions. The two biggest scandals were the Russia and the Ukraine scandals.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269896\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"wp-image-269896 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/us-presidents-trump-scandal.jpg\" alt=\"Trump scandal\" width=\"556\" height=\"278\" /> ©Shutterstock/Aquir[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >The Russia scandal</h2>\r\nAlmost as soon as Donald Trump had assumed the presidency, the Russia scandal broke out. It involved some of the president’s closest aides, including his <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/political-science/what-is-the-role-of-the-national-security-advisor-178895/\">national security advisor</a>.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">During the 2016 presidential election, Russian operatives hacked Hillary Clinton’s server and later also the server for the Democratic National Committee. U.S. intelligence would later find out that the Russian government was actively trying to interfere in the U.S. presidential election by creating dissent among the U.S. public and trying to undermine Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton.</p>\r\nIn May 2017 Trump fired FBI Director James Comey, who had been leading an investigation into links between the Russian government and Trump associates. Comey later testified that he was fired after he refused to drop the investigation of President Trump’s National Security Advisor Michael Flynn, who had resigned after only 24 days in office after it was discovered that he had lied to Congress about meetings with the Russian Ambassador to the United States.\r\n\r\nFormer FBI Director Robert Mueller was appointed in May of 2017 to investigate whether there was any collusion between the Trump campaign and the Russian government and whether the Trump campaign had attempted to obstruct justice.\r\n\r\nThe findings of the investigation were released in April 2019 and stated that while there was clear interference by the Russian government in the <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/political-science/american-government/how-the-electoral-college-affected-the-2000-and-2016-elections-267936/\">2016 presidential elections</a>, there was no clear evidence that the Trump campaign had conspired with the Russian government. The report does note that while there was no evidence the Trump campaign coordinated with the Russian government, it clearly did benefit from Russian interference.\r\n\r\nThe findings on obstruction of justice were less clear. Mueller concluded that he could not charge a sitting president with a crime because a sitting president cannot stand trial. Only Congress can charge and then impeach and even remove a president.\r\n\r\nAccording to the report: “The investigation does not conclude that the president committed a crime; however, it does also not exonerate him.” In other words Mueller took the easy way out and left it up to Congress to take the next or no steps.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >The Ukraine scandal</h2>\r\nAfter having weathered the Russia scandal, it looked like President Trump’s presidency was safe until the 2020 election. However, in September 2019, the Ukraine scandal broke out. The scandal involves President Trump’s alleged attempts to coerce Ukraine into providing information on his possible democratic challenger Joe Biden and his son Hunter.\r\n\r\nAccording to the charges, President Trump threatened to withhold $400 million in military aid from Ukraine, unless it reopened an investigation into Hunter Biden’s activities in Ukraine.\r\n\r\nAn anonymous whistle blower brought this to the attention of Congress and the media, and in September 2019, the House of Representatives began hearings on whether President Trump solicited foreign intervention in the 2020 campaign. This would be an impeachable offense.\r\n\r\nFull impeachment hearings were started on October 31, 2019. These were open to the public and were nationally televised. On December 18, 2019, the House of Representatives voted 230 to 197 to impeach President Trump for abuse of power and obstruction of Congress.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">President Trump was the third president to be impeached by the House of Representatives. Andrew Johnson and <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/history/american/president-bill-clintons-foreign-and-domestic-policies-151473/\">Bill Clinton</a> were the other two.</p>\r\nAfter being impeached by the House of Representatives, the Senate started on January 16, 2020, to debate whether to remove President Trump from office. On February 5, 2020, the Senate acquitted President Trump by a 52 to 48 vote. It is now up to the U.S. electorate to decide whether he deserves a second term.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9725,"name":"Marcus A. Stadelmann","slug":"marcus-stadelmann","description":"Marcus A. Stadelmann, PhD, is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9725"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American History","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34474,"title":"American Government","slug":"american-government","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34474"}},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"The Russia scandal","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"The Ukraine scandal","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":269903,"title":"U.S. Presidential Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"The Controversial Style of Trump's Presidency","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}},{"articleId":269885,"title":"The 10 Best Presidents","slug":"the-10-best-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269885"}},{"articleId":269475,"title":"U.S. Presidents For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"u-s-presidents-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269475"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":299292,"title":"The Final Events that Led To the American Revolution","slug":"the-final-events-that-led-to-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/299292"}},{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"U.S. Presidential Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"The Controversial Style of Trump's Presidency","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282653,"slug":"u-s-presidents-for-dummies-with-online-practice-2nd-edition","isbn":"9781119654537","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/111965453X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/111965453X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/111965453X-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/111965453X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/111965453X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/u.s.-presidents-for-dummies-2nd-edition-cover-9781119654537-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"U.S. Presidents For Dummies with Online Practice","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"35313\">Marcus A. Stadelmann</b>, PhD,</b> is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":35313,"name":"Marcus A. Stadelmann","slug":"marcus-a-stadelmann","description":" <p><b>Marcus A. Stadelmann, PhD,</b> is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/35313"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119654537&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64d5500f32758\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119654537&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64d5500f32c5a\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"One year","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2023-08-10T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":269894},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2023-06-14T20:24:08+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-08-04T13:19:30+00:00","timestamp":"2023-08-04T18:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"The Final Events that Led To the American Revolution","strippedTitle":"the final events that led to the american revolution","slug":"the-final-events-that-led-to-the-american-revolution","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about the final events that led up to the American colonists fight for independence from Britain during the mid-1760s and early 1770s.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"During the mid-1760s, America and Britain had managed to confine their differences to rhetorical battles and bloodless economic boycotts. But the conflict took a decided turn after the Boston Massacre in 1770 and the Boston Tea Party in 1773.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_299298\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-299298\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/george-washington-crossing-deleware-adobeStock_102150460.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"384\" /> ©Tony Baggett / Adobe Stock<br />An engraved illustration of George Washington crossing the River Delaware during the American Revolutionary War, from a Victorian book dated 1886.[/caption]\r\n\r\nIn early September 1774, an extraordinary collection of American colonists gathered in Philadelphia. There were 56 of them, from all the colonies except Georgia (whose inhabitants were facing a war with Creek Indians, needed the support of British troops, and therefore didn’t want to irritate government officials in London).\r\n\r\nAll of the 56 were males. About half of them were lawyers. Some, like John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, were among the wealthiest men in America. Others, like Sam Adams of Massachusetts, were so financially strapped friends had to chip in and buy him a decent set of clothes for the convention.\r\n\r\nThere were well-known figures, such as George Washington, John Adams, and Patrick Henry, and men largely unknown outside their colonies. One (Benjamin Harrison of Virginia) would be the father and great-grandfather of future U.S. presidents. Another (Stephen Crane of New Jersey) would be bayoneted to death by German mercenary soldiers during the Revolutionary War. A third (Edward Rutledge of North Carolina) would be, at the age of 26, the youngest man to sign the Declaration of Independence.\r\n\r\nThese men were delegates to what became known as the <em>First Continental Congress.</em> They had been sent by colonial assemblies to, in the words of the Massachusetts assembly, “a meeting of Committees from the several Colonies on this Continent … to consult upon the present state of the Colonies, and the miseries, to which they are, and must be reduced, by the operation of certain Acts of Parliament respecting America… .”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Getting down to business</h2>\r\nThe first order of business was to make it clear to British authorities that they were not immediately planning a revolution. Delegates wrote to General Gage in Boston to assure him they were trying to find “the most peaceable means for restoring American liberty.”\r\n\r\nAfter narrowly rejecting a conciliation plan proposed by Joseph Galloway that called for creation of an American parliament that would work with the British version, delegates drew up a <em>Declaration of Rights and Grievances</em> addressed directly to King George III. This was basically a laundry list of all the complaints America had made since passage of the Stamp Act nine years before.\r\n\r\nThey asked the king to drop the Coercive Acts. Several delegates wrote essays suggesting the colonies deal only with the king and completely ignore Parliament. More ominously, they agreed to a mutual defense pact — if one colony should be subjected to violence by British troops, the others would come to its aid.\r\n\r\nThey also endorsed a series of resolutions from Massachusetts (delivered to the convention via a Paul Revere horseback ride), known as the <em>Suffolk Resolves.</em> These called for completely ignoring the provisions of the Coercive Acts, establishing armed militias in each town, and requiring citizens to “use their utmost diligence to acquaint themselves with the art of war as soon as possible.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >A serious boycott</h2>\r\nFinally, the congress approved a total boycott of British goods, in a united resolution called <em>The Association</em>. This boycott went far beyond previous boycotts. Under it, nothing from British sources — up to and including slaves — would be imported as of Dec. 1, 1774. Furthermore, no American goods would be exported to Britain — although after protests from their delegates, rice from South Carolina and tobacco from Virginia were exempted.\r\n\r\nThe export ban was delayed until the following year so “as not to injure our fellow-subjects in Great Britain, Ireland and the West Indies.” Finally, British goods already in the colonies would not be bought, sold or consumed.\r\n\r\n“We do for ourselves, and the inhabitants of the several colonies, whom we represent, firmly agree … to abide by the agreements,” the resolution concluded. On Oct. 26, they went home, with the understanding they would reconvene in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, if necessary. It was.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >'Let it begin here'</h2>\r\nIt was Britain’s serve in the ping-pong political battle straddling the Atlantic. Hoping to preserve peace, William Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, proposed a sweeping rollback of almost every act that had angered the Americans. But mindful of a still-furious king, the House of Lords resoundingly rejected it.\r\n\r\nBritish Prime Minister Lord Frederick North (who served from 1770 to 1782) then offered a half-a-loaf <em>Conciliatory Resolution,</em> which said that if a colony would contribute to its own defense and pay for civil and judicial administrations within its borders, it would be exempt from paying taxes — except those necessary for the regulation of commerce<em>.</em>\r\n\r\nThe proposal, approved by Parliament in February 1775, did not reach the colonies for several months, after the fighting had begun. It was summarily rejected when it got there anyway.\r\n\r\nProdded by King George, North also pushed Parliament into declaring Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and authorized more troops to be sent to the colonies. The so-called <em>Restraining Acts</em> limited trade between all of the British Empire and the colonies and prohibited New England fishermen from working in the cod-rich seas off Newfoundland.\r\n\r\nParliamentary members sympathetic to the Americans warned that Britain might be biting off more than it could chew. “You cannot furnish armies, or treasure, competent to the mighty purpose of subduing America,” said Edmund Burke. “But whether France and Spain will be tame, inactive spectators of your efforts and distractions is well worthy of the consideration of your lordships.”\r\n\r\nBurke’s warning was echoed by General Gage, the Massachusetts governor who was also in command of His Majesty’s army in America. “If you think ten thousand men are enough,” he wrote Lord North, “send twenty; if a million (pounds) is thought to be enough, give two. You will save blood and treasure in the end.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Squirreling away supplies</h2>\r\nMeanwhile, in the colonies, efforts were being made to enforce the economic boycott — and prepare for war. To accomplish the first of these tasks, committees were appointed in every county to oversee adherence to the boycott, as well as discourage colonists from taking government jobs, particularly in Massachusetts.\r\n\r\nNames of those who were suspected of violations were publicized, and the offenders faced social ostracism, and sometimes worse. While the occasional tarring and feathering did take place, the threat of physical violence was usually implied more than employed. Shunning by one’s neighbors was usually enough.\r\n\r\nOne Massachusetts man who had been appointed a councilor to the governor walked into a church service one Sunday, only to see all his fellow congregants walk out. He thereupon declined the appointment.\r\n\r\nWhile enforcing the boycott, the Sons of Liberty group and militia, known as <em>Minute Men</em> because they were to respond quickly to any call to arms, staged surprise raids on British supply depots and made off with arms and ammunition. They took care not to shoot, daring the British troops to fire first. The tactic followed the advice of Sam Adams: “Put your enemy in the wrong and keep him so. It is a wise maxim in politics as well as in war.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >Riding with Revere</h2>\r\nThe colonists also kept a constant eye on the movements of British troops. One of their most effective spies was the son of a French immigrant who had established himself as a master silversmith in Boston. Paul Revere also made false teeth and surgical instruments — and was good on a horse.\r\n\r\nIn mid-April 1775, General Gage received orders from London to arrest the colonial dissident leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock and seize any arms collected by the colonists. Gage was also directed to use force, if necessary. So, on the evening of April 18, Gage ordered a force of 700 men to march from Boston to the village of Concord, about 20 miles away, arrest Adams and Hancock if they found them, and destroy a cache of arms suspected to be there.\r\n\r\nRevere, however, got wind of the plan, and set out to warn the countryside that the British were coming. It was a harrowing trek. After crossing the Charles River at night in a small boat, he outrode British pursuers and made it to the small town of Lexington, about seven miles from Concord. There he warned Adams and Hancock.\r\n\r\nWith two other men, Thomas Dawes and Dr. Samuel Prescott, he then set out for Concord. The trio ran into a mounted British patrol. Prescott escaped by leaping his horse over a stone wall and made it to Concord, where the militia was able to hide most of the guns and ammunition.\r\n\r\nRevere and Dawes were briefly detained, but were somewhat inexplicably released after the troops took Revere’s horse. (Of the three riders, Revere is the one everyone remembers mainly because of a wildly popular 1861 poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.)\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >The 'shot heard round the world'</h2>\r\nAt the village of Lexington, the British force was confronted by a group of about 75 militia under the command of John Parker. A farmer and veteran of the French and Indian War, Parker initially ignored the British officer’s command that the Americans put down their arms. Instead, according to the later account of a man under his command, Parker replied, “Stand your ground. Don’t fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here.”\r\n\r\nOutnumbered 10 to 1, Parker was in the process of changing his mind when a shot was fired — by which side is unknown — and a volley of gunfire followed. Eight of the colonists were killed and ten wounded.\r\n\r\nThe British troops then moved on to Concord, where they destroyed several cannons that had been too big to hide. By that time, however, hundreds of militia had arrived, and as the British troops began moving back toward Boston, they fired on the Americans, who returned fire.\r\n\r\nWhat had been an orderly withdrawal by the British now became a somewhat disorderly retreat. “We retired for 15 miles under incessant fire,” a British officer recounted, “which like a moving circle surrounded us wherever we went.”\r\n\r\nShooting from behind rocks and inside houses, the American militia killed or wounded more than 250 of the king’s soldiers, while suffering about 90 casualties themselves.\r\n\r\nThe battle was immortalized in an 1836 poem written by Ralph Waldo Emerson, called “Concord Hymn:\"\r\n<blockquote><em>“By the rude bridge that arched the flood, / Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, / Here once the embattled farmers stood, / And fired the shot heard ’round the world.”</em></blockquote>\r\n \r\n\r\nStirring poetics aside, the long war of words between Mother Britain and her American children was over. The war of blood and death had begun.","description":"During the mid-1760s, America and Britain had managed to confine their differences to rhetorical battles and bloodless economic boycotts. But the conflict took a decided turn after the Boston Massacre in 1770 and the Boston Tea Party in 1773.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_299298\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-299298\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/george-washington-crossing-deleware-adobeStock_102150460.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"384\" /> ©Tony Baggett / Adobe Stock<br />An engraved illustration of George Washington crossing the River Delaware during the American Revolutionary War, from a Victorian book dated 1886.[/caption]\r\n\r\nIn early September 1774, an extraordinary collection of American colonists gathered in Philadelphia. There were 56 of them, from all the colonies except Georgia (whose inhabitants were facing a war with Creek Indians, needed the support of British troops, and therefore didn’t want to irritate government officials in London).\r\n\r\nAll of the 56 were males. About half of them were lawyers. Some, like John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, were among the wealthiest men in America. Others, like Sam Adams of Massachusetts, were so financially strapped friends had to chip in and buy him a decent set of clothes for the convention.\r\n\r\nThere were well-known figures, such as George Washington, John Adams, and Patrick Henry, and men largely unknown outside their colonies. One (Benjamin Harrison of Virginia) would be the father and great-grandfather of future U.S. presidents. Another (Stephen Crane of New Jersey) would be bayoneted to death by German mercenary soldiers during the Revolutionary War. A third (Edward Rutledge of North Carolina) would be, at the age of 26, the youngest man to sign the Declaration of Independence.\r\n\r\nThese men were delegates to what became known as the <em>First Continental Congress.</em> They had been sent by colonial assemblies to, in the words of the Massachusetts assembly, “a meeting of Committees from the several Colonies on this Continent … to consult upon the present state of the Colonies, and the miseries, to which they are, and must be reduced, by the operation of certain Acts of Parliament respecting America… .”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Getting down to business</h2>\r\nThe first order of business was to make it clear to British authorities that they were not immediately planning a revolution. Delegates wrote to General Gage in Boston to assure him they were trying to find “the most peaceable means for restoring American liberty.”\r\n\r\nAfter narrowly rejecting a conciliation plan proposed by Joseph Galloway that called for creation of an American parliament that would work with the British version, delegates drew up a <em>Declaration of Rights and Grievances</em> addressed directly to King George III. This was basically a laundry list of all the complaints America had made since passage of the Stamp Act nine years before.\r\n\r\nThey asked the king to drop the Coercive Acts. Several delegates wrote essays suggesting the colonies deal only with the king and completely ignore Parliament. More ominously, they agreed to a mutual defense pact — if one colony should be subjected to violence by British troops, the others would come to its aid.\r\n\r\nThey also endorsed a series of resolutions from Massachusetts (delivered to the convention via a Paul Revere horseback ride), known as the <em>Suffolk Resolves.</em> These called for completely ignoring the provisions of the Coercive Acts, establishing armed militias in each town, and requiring citizens to “use their utmost diligence to acquaint themselves with the art of war as soon as possible.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >A serious boycott</h2>\r\nFinally, the congress approved a total boycott of British goods, in a united resolution called <em>The Association</em>. This boycott went far beyond previous boycotts. Under it, nothing from British sources — up to and including slaves — would be imported as of Dec. 1, 1774. Furthermore, no American goods would be exported to Britain — although after protests from their delegates, rice from South Carolina and tobacco from Virginia were exempted.\r\n\r\nThe export ban was delayed until the following year so “as not to injure our fellow-subjects in Great Britain, Ireland and the West Indies.” Finally, British goods already in the colonies would not be bought, sold or consumed.\r\n\r\n“We do for ourselves, and the inhabitants of the several colonies, whom we represent, firmly agree … to abide by the agreements,” the resolution concluded. On Oct. 26, they went home, with the understanding they would reconvene in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, if necessary. It was.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >'Let it begin here'</h2>\r\nIt was Britain’s serve in the ping-pong political battle straddling the Atlantic. Hoping to preserve peace, William Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, proposed a sweeping rollback of almost every act that had angered the Americans. But mindful of a still-furious king, the House of Lords resoundingly rejected it.\r\n\r\nBritish Prime Minister Lord Frederick North (who served from 1770 to 1782) then offered a half-a-loaf <em>Conciliatory Resolution,</em> which said that if a colony would contribute to its own defense and pay for civil and judicial administrations within its borders, it would be exempt from paying taxes — except those necessary for the regulation of commerce<em>.</em>\r\n\r\nThe proposal, approved by Parliament in February 1775, did not reach the colonies for several months, after the fighting had begun. It was summarily rejected when it got there anyway.\r\n\r\nProdded by King George, North also pushed Parliament into declaring Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and authorized more troops to be sent to the colonies. The so-called <em>Restraining Acts</em> limited trade between all of the British Empire and the colonies and prohibited New England fishermen from working in the cod-rich seas off Newfoundland.\r\n\r\nParliamentary members sympathetic to the Americans warned that Britain might be biting off more than it could chew. “You cannot furnish armies, or treasure, competent to the mighty purpose of subduing America,” said Edmund Burke. “But whether France and Spain will be tame, inactive spectators of your efforts and distractions is well worthy of the consideration of your lordships.”\r\n\r\nBurke’s warning was echoed by General Gage, the Massachusetts governor who was also in command of His Majesty’s army in America. “If you think ten thousand men are enough,” he wrote Lord North, “send twenty; if a million (pounds) is thought to be enough, give two. You will save blood and treasure in the end.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Squirreling away supplies</h2>\r\nMeanwhile, in the colonies, efforts were being made to enforce the economic boycott — and prepare for war. To accomplish the first of these tasks, committees were appointed in every county to oversee adherence to the boycott, as well as discourage colonists from taking government jobs, particularly in Massachusetts.\r\n\r\nNames of those who were suspected of violations were publicized, and the offenders faced social ostracism, and sometimes worse. While the occasional tarring and feathering did take place, the threat of physical violence was usually implied more than employed. Shunning by one’s neighbors was usually enough.\r\n\r\nOne Massachusetts man who had been appointed a councilor to the governor walked into a church service one Sunday, only to see all his fellow congregants walk out. He thereupon declined the appointment.\r\n\r\nWhile enforcing the boycott, the Sons of Liberty group and militia, known as <em>Minute Men</em> because they were to respond quickly to any call to arms, staged surprise raids on British supply depots and made off with arms and ammunition. They took care not to shoot, daring the British troops to fire first. The tactic followed the advice of Sam Adams: “Put your enemy in the wrong and keep him so. It is a wise maxim in politics as well as in war.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >Riding with Revere</h2>\r\nThe colonists also kept a constant eye on the movements of British troops. One of their most effective spies was the son of a French immigrant who had established himself as a master silversmith in Boston. Paul Revere also made false teeth and surgical instruments — and was good on a horse.\r\n\r\nIn mid-April 1775, General Gage received orders from London to arrest the colonial dissident leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock and seize any arms collected by the colonists. Gage was also directed to use force, if necessary. So, on the evening of April 18, Gage ordered a force of 700 men to march from Boston to the village of Concord, about 20 miles away, arrest Adams and Hancock if they found them, and destroy a cache of arms suspected to be there.\r\n\r\nRevere, however, got wind of the plan, and set out to warn the countryside that the British were coming. It was a harrowing trek. After crossing the Charles River at night in a small boat, he outrode British pursuers and made it to the small town of Lexington, about seven miles from Concord. There he warned Adams and Hancock.\r\n\r\nWith two other men, Thomas Dawes and Dr. Samuel Prescott, he then set out for Concord. The trio ran into a mounted British patrol. Prescott escaped by leaping his horse over a stone wall and made it to Concord, where the militia was able to hide most of the guns and ammunition.\r\n\r\nRevere and Dawes were briefly detained, but were somewhat inexplicably released after the troops took Revere’s horse. (Of the three riders, Revere is the one everyone remembers mainly because of a wildly popular 1861 poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.)\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >The 'shot heard round the world'</h2>\r\nAt the village of Lexington, the British force was confronted by a group of about 75 militia under the command of John Parker. A farmer and veteran of the French and Indian War, Parker initially ignored the British officer’s command that the Americans put down their arms. Instead, according to the later account of a man under his command, Parker replied, “Stand your ground. Don’t fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here.”\r\n\r\nOutnumbered 10 to 1, Parker was in the process of changing his mind when a shot was fired — by which side is unknown — and a volley of gunfire followed. Eight of the colonists were killed and ten wounded.\r\n\r\nThe British troops then moved on to Concord, where they destroyed several cannons that had been too big to hide. By that time, however, hundreds of militia had arrived, and as the British troops began moving back toward Boston, they fired on the Americans, who returned fire.\r\n\r\nWhat had been an orderly withdrawal by the British now became a somewhat disorderly retreat. “We retired for 15 miles under incessant fire,” a British officer recounted, “which like a moving circle surrounded us wherever we went.”\r\n\r\nShooting from behind rocks and inside houses, the American militia killed or wounded more than 250 of the king’s soldiers, while suffering about 90 casualties themselves.\r\n\r\nThe battle was immortalized in an 1836 poem written by Ralph Waldo Emerson, called “Concord Hymn:\"\r\n<blockquote><em>“By the rude bridge that arched the flood, / Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, / Here once the embattled farmers stood, / And fired the shot heard ’round the world.”</em></blockquote>\r\n \r\n\r\nStirring poetics aside, the long war of words between Mother Britain and her American children was over. The war of blood and death had begun.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":" <p><b>Steve Wiegand</b> is an award&#45;winning political journalist and history writer. Over a 35&#45;year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9116"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American History","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Getting down to business","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"A serious boycott","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"'Let it begin here'","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"Squirreling away supplies","target":"#tab4"},{"label":"Riding with Revere","target":"#tab5"},{"label":"The 'shot heard round the world'","target":"#tab6"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":265932,"title":"Women in the American Revolution","slug":"women-in-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265932"}},{"articleId":265926,"title":"Native Americans in the Revolutionary War","slug":"native-americans-in-the-revolutionary-war","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265926"}},{"articleId":265923,"title":"Slavery and the American Revolution","slug":"slavery-and-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265923"}},{"articleId":265917,"title":"The Aftereffects of the American Revolution","slug":"the-impact-of-the-american-revolution-on-the-home-front","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265917"}},{"articleId":265911,"title":"The Lack of Unity in Early American Colonies","slug":"the-lack-of-unity-in-early-american-colonies","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265911"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"U.S. Presidential Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"The Controversial Style of Trump's Presidency","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281944,"slug":"american-revolution-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119593492","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119593492-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/american-revolution-for-dummies-cover-9781119593492-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"American Revolution For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9116\">Steve Wiegand</b></b> is an award&#45;winning political journalist and history writer. Over a 35&#45;year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":" <p><b>Steve Wiegand</b> is an award&#45;winning political journalist and history writer. Over a 35&#45;year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history. 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This Cheat Sheet gives you the lay of the land, and identifies the leaders and the turning points that made Scotland what it is today.","description":"Scottish history is full of wonderful characters — some good, some not so good — and exciting events, from the bloodthirsty to scientific discovery. 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Here is a rundown of some highlights of different periods of Scottish history.</p>\n<h3>Ancient Scotland</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Neolithic Scotland:</b> c.12,000 BCE to c. 2,750 BCE</li>\n<li><b>The Beaker people and the Bronze Age:</b> c. 2,750 BCE to 750 BCE</li>\n<li><b>The Iron Age and La Tène culture:</b> c. 750 BC to 43 CE</li>\n<li><b>Roman Britain:</b> 43 CE to 410 CE</li>\n<li><b>The spread of Christianity:</b> c. 400 to c. 600</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>The Middle Ages</h3>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li><b>The first of the Viking Raids:</b> c. 795 to c. 825</li>\n<li><b>The disappearance of the Picts:</b> c. 843</li>\n<li><b>The MacAlpin Dynasty:</b> c. 843 to 1290</li>\n<li><b>The spread of feudalism:</b> c. 1050 to 1150</li>\n<li><b>The Wars of Independence:</b> 1296 to 1357</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>Early Modern Scotland</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>The Scottish Reformation:</b> 1560</li>\n<li><b>The</b> <b>Union of Crowns:</b> 1603</li>\n<li><b>The National Covenant: </b>1638</li>\n<li><b>The Wars of the Three Kingdoms:</b> 1638 to 1688</li>\n<li><b>The Union of Parliaments:</b> 1707</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>The Modern Age</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Jacobite Rebellions:</b> 1689 to 1745</li>\n<li><b>Industrialization: </b>c. 1750 to 1850</li>\n<li><b>The Highland Clearances: </b>c. 1780 to 1854</li>\n<li><b>The Great War:</b> 1914 to 1918</li>\n<li><b>The Second World War: </b>1939 to 1945</li>\n<li><b>The Restoration of the Scottish Parliament:</b> 1999</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Rulers of Scotland","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Kenneth MacAlpin is reckoned to be the first king of Scotland, but his rule extended only to the south and west of the country; great swaths of territory were still in the hands of the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings.</p>\n<p>Not until 1460 did what is known today as Scotland exist territorially. The last king of a separate Scotland was James VI, who died in 1625. By that time, he was also king of England and Scotland thanks to the Union of Crowns in 1603. From that point, England and Scotland shared a monarch but not a parliament; they were both independent countries until 1707.</p>\n<h3>House of MacAlpin</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Kenneth MacAlpin: </b>c. 843 to c. 858</li>\n<li><b>Donald I:</b> 859 to 862</li>\n<li><b>Constantine I:</b> 862 to 876</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>Interregnum</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Interregnum (no overall king):</b> 876 to 877</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>House of MacAlpin</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Aed:</b> c. 877 to 878</li>\n<li><b>Eochaid and Giric (probably shared the throne): </b>878 to 889</li>\n<li><b>Donald II:</b> 889 to 900</li>\n<li><b>Constantine II:</b> 900 to c. 943</li>\n<li><b>Malcolm I MacDonald:</b> c. 943 to 954</li>\n<li><b>Indulf:</b> 954 to 962</li>\n<li><b>Dubh ‘the Black’:</b> 962 to 966</li>\n<li><b>Culen:</b> 966 to 971</li>\n<li><b>Kenneth II:</b> 971 to 995</li>\n<li><b>Constantine III ‘the Bald’:</b> 995 to 997</li>\n<li><b>Kenneth III: </b>997 to 1005</li>\n<li><b>Malcolm II: </b>1005 to 1034</li>\n<li><b>Duncan I:</b> 1034 to 1040</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>House of Moray</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Macbeth:</b> 1040 to 1057</li>\n<li><b>Lulach:</b> 1057 to 1058</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>House of MacAlpin</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Malcolm III Canmore: </b>1058 to 1093</li>\n<li><b>Donald III Bane:</b> 1093 to 1094</li>\n<li><b>Duncan II: </b>1094</li>\n<li><b>Donald III Bane (resumed the throne):</b> 1094 to 1097</li>\n<li><b>Edgar:</b> 1097 to 1107</li>\n<li><b>Alexander I:</b> 1107 to 1124</li>\n<li><b>David I:</b> 1124 to 1153</li>\n<li><b>Malcolm IV ‘the Maiden’:</b> 1153 to 1165</li>\n<li><b>William ‘the Lion’:</b> 1165 to 1214</li>\n<li><b>Alexander II:</b> 1214 to 1249</li>\n<li><b>Alexander III:</b> 1249 to 1286</li>\n<li><b>Margaret, ‘the Maid of Norway’:</b> 1286 to 1290</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>Interregnum</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>English Overlordship (Edward I):</b> 1290 to 1292</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>House of MacAlpin</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>John Balliol:</b> 1292 to 1296 (abdicated)</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>English Invasion and Occupation</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Edward I of England:</b> 1296 to 1306</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>House of Bruce</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Robert I de Brus (Bruce):</b> 1306 to 1329</li>\n<li><b>David II:</b> 1329 to 1371</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>House of Stewart</h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Robert II ‘the Steward’: </b>1371 to 1390</li>\n<li><b>Robert III (John Stewart):</b> 1390 to 1406</li>\n<li><b>James I:</b> 1406 to 1437</li>\n<li><b>James II:</b> 1437 to 1460</li>\n<li><b>James III:</b> 1460 to 1488</li>\n<li><b>James IV:</b> 1488 to 1513</li>\n<li><b>James V:</b> 1513 to 1542</li>\n<li><b>Mary, Queen of Scots:</b> 1542 to 1567</li>\n<li><b>James VI:</b> 1567 to 1625 (became James I of England in 1603)</li>\n</ul>\n<p>The Stewart dynasty continued to hold the throne until 1689, when James III and VI was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. The throne of Britain was given to William of Orange and his wife Mary. They were succeeded by Anne, who died childless, and she was in turn succeeded by George, Elector of Hanover.</p>\n"},{"title":"Major events and battles in Scottish history","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Following is a list of the main events and battles that played a decisive role in Scottish history, from the arrival of the Romans to the Industrial Revolution and beyond:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><b>84 AD:</b> Battle of Mons Graupius, the earliest recorded battle in Scottish history, in which the Romans, under Agricola, defeated the Caledones.</li>\n<li><b>121 to 129:</b> Construction of Hadrian’s Wall.</li>\n<li><b>410:</b> The Romans leave Britain.</li>\n<li><b>563:</b> St Columba arrives from Ireland to Argyll to found a monastery on the Island of Iona.</li>\n<li><b>685:</b> Battle of Nechtansmere; the Picts under King Bridei defeated the Angles and established Scotland’s southern border.</li>\n<li><b>795:</b> The first Viking raids.</li>\n<li><b>843:</b> Kenneth MacAlpin unites the Scots and Picts as one nation under his rule.</li>\n<li><b>1018:</b> The Battle of Carham. The Scots defeated the Anglo-Saxons and claimed Strathclyde.</li>\n<li><b>1040:</b> Macbeth slays Duncan in battle and begins a 17-year rule, becoming the first Scottish king to make a pilgrimage to Rome.</li>\n<li><b>1069:</b> Marriage of Malcolm Ceanmore (Malcolm III) to Margaret, a union that ushered in a golden age that ended with the canonization of Margaret as Scotland’s only royal saint.</li>\n<li><b>1124:</b> David I ascends the throne and is principally known for initiating the spread of feudalism in Scotland, which led to the settlement of Anglo-Norman families like the Bruces.</li>\n<li><b>1263:</b> The Battle of Largs. The Scots defeat Haaken of Norway and obtain the Hebrides.</li>\n<li><b>1286:</b> Alexander III dies after falling from his horse. The only heir is child ‘Margaret, Maid of Norway’. Scotland plunges into chaos.</li>\n<li><b>1292:</b> Edward I of England selects John Balliol as the King of Scotland and kicks off the wars of independence.</li>\n<li><b>1305:</b> The leader of the Scottish resistance to English rule, William Wallace, is captured and executed.</li>\n<li><b>1314:</b> The Battle of Bannockburn. Scots under Robert the Bruce, with an army half the size of the English one, inflicted the worst defeat suffered by England in the medieval period, resulting in Scottish independence.</li>\n<li><b>1320:</b> The Declaration of Arbroath is drawn up to recognize Scottish independence from England and sent to the Pope.</li>\n<li><b>1332:</b> The Second War of Independence begins.</li>\n<li><b>1371:</b> Robert II, the first of the Stewart kings, accedes to the throne.</li>\n<li><b>1412: </b>St Andrews University is founded by Bishop Wardlaw. It was followed by Glasgow in 1451, Aberdeen in 1495, and Edinburgh in 1582.</li>\n<li><b>1469:</b> Orkney and Shetland Islands acquired by Scotland from Norway.<b> </b>Finalization of the boundaries of Scotland.</li>\n<li><b>1512:</b> Under the terms of a treaty with France, the ‘Auld Alliance’ is established.</li>\n<li><b>1513:</b> The Battle of Flodden. James IV is killed in the battle along with much of the aristocracy and thousands of Scottish soldiers.</li>\n<li><b>1559:</b> John Knox’s sermon at Perth, regarded as the start of the Reformation in Scotland.</li>\n<li><b>1561:</b> Mary, Queen of Scots, returns to Scotland and is executed in 1587.</li>\n<li><b>1603:</b> The Union of Crowns. James VI becomes James I of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland.</li>\n<li><b>1638:</b> The National Covenant is signed at Greyfriars Church in Edinburgh, an event that plunges the whole of Britain into civil war.</li>\n<li><b>1649:</b> Charles I is executed.</li>\n<li><b>1653:</b> Scotland is incorporated into the Cromwellian Protectorate.</li>\n<li><b>1660:</b> The restoration of the monarchy. Charles II is crowned king and immediately destroys the covenanting movement in Scotland.</li>\n<li><b>1689:</b> The Glorious Revolution. Presbyterianism is recognized as the official faith of Scotland, but it was also the year of the first unsuccessful Jacobite Rebellion led by John Graham of Claverhouse, also known as ‘Bonnie Dundee’.</li>\n<li><b>1692:</b> The Massacre of Glencoe. Thirty-eight members of the MacDonald Clan are slaughtered by government forces under the cover of darkness.</li>\n<li><b>1698:</b> The first expedition in the Darien scheme, a disaster that almost ruins the governing classes in Scotland.</li>\n<li><b>1707:</b> The Union of Parliaments. A new country called Great Britain is created as the Scots vote to give up their sovereignty.</li>\n<li><b>1715:</b> The Second Jacobite Rebellion. The Jacobites, led by the Earl of Mar, sought to set James Stewart (James VIII), the ‘Old Pretender’, on the throne of Britain but were defeated at the Battle of Sheriffmuir.</li>\n<li><b>1719:</b> The Third Jacobite Rebellion took place with assistance from Spain, but it resulted in defeat at the Battle of Glenshiel. The aftermath of the rebellion marks the beginning of the British government’s policy to pacify the Highlands.</li>\n<li><b>1745:</b> The final Jacobite Rebellion, which culminated in 1746 at the Battle of Culloden – the last battle to be fought on British soil – and defeat of Charles Edward Stewart, ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’.</li>\n<li><b>1776:</b> Adam Smith’s <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> is published; along with other thinkers and scientists, the Scots invent the modern world.</li>\n<li><b>1793:</b> Thomas Muir and other radicals are arrested and transported to Australia for their fight to end the old system of political corruption and replace it with universal male suffrage.</li>\n<li><b>1807:</b> The Highland Clearances, a systematic policy of clearing people from the Sutherland estates to make way for sheep.</li>\n<li><b>1832:</b> The First Reform Act, which enfranchised the middle classes and increased the size of the electorate by 5,200 per cent. It was followed by further reforms in 1868 and 1884.</li>\n<li><b>1843:</b> The Disruption. The Church of Scotland split over the question of patronage and led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland.</li>\n<li><b>1859:</b> The first Open Golf Championship is held at Prestwick, Ayrshire.</li>\n<li><b>1873:</b> The Scottish Football Association formed, beginning a national obsession with the round ball.</li>\n<li><b>1884:</b> The Crofters’ War. Crofters conduct land seizures and clash with police forces on islands like Skye. It led to reforms favorable to the crofters in 1886.</li>\n<li><b>1888:</b> The founding of the Scottish Labour Party by Keir Hardie. The Scottish Labour Party was the forerunner of the British Labour Party, founded in 1906.</li>\n<li><b>1912:</b> ‘The Outrages’. Suffragettes in Scotland step up their campaign in Scotland for votes for women by acts of civil disobedience. Windows are broken, and houses and railway stations are burnt down.</li>\n<li><b>1912:</b> The formation of the Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party, formed as a combination of Tories and Liberal Unionists. It became known as the Unionist Party in Scotland.</li>\n<li><b>1914:</b> The First World War and industrial unrest in Glasgow creating the image of ‘Red Clydeside’.</li>\n<li><b>1918:</b> The Reform Act grants the vote to women over the age of 30 – but it took another ten years to lower the voting age to 21.</li>\n<li><b>1922:</b> The General Election sees the successful return of ten Labour candidates in Glasgow and creates a political sensation but also coincides with the beginning of the worst economic recession on record.</li>\n<li><b>1924:</b> Ramsay MacDonald is Labour’s first prime minister. His government lasted only nine months, but he was re-elected in 1929.</li>\n<li><b>1931:</b> The fall of the second Labour government. The general election saw the Labour vote almost wiped out in Scotland, but it recovered in 1935.</li>\n<li><b>1934:</b> The founding of the Scottish National Party. Although at this time it was small and insignificant, the party grew into a major political party in the 1970s.</li>\n<li><b>1939–1945:</b> The Second World War. Clydeside becomes a major target for German bombers.</li>\n<li><b>1947:</b> The First Edinburgh Festival of Drama and Music. It went on to become the largest arts festival in the world.</li>\n<li><b>1967:</b> Scottish Nationalist Winnie Ewing wins Hamilton in a by-election. This was Labour’s safest parliamentary seat in Scotland. It sparked off a nationalist revival, and the Scottish National Party won 11 seats in the 1974 general election.</li>\n<li><b>1975:</b> The first oil is piped ashore from the North Sea.</li>\n<li><b>1978:</b> Referendum on a Scottish Assembly. It proved a disaster for the ‘Yes’ campaign, and in the general election that followed, the Scottish National Party lost ten of its parliamentary seats.</li>\n<li><b>1997:</b> The Second Referendum on a Scottish Assembly leads to a 75 per cent majority in favor.</li>\n<li><b>1999:</b> The Scottish Parliament sits for the first time in 300 years.</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2023-07-18T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":207669},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:54:22+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-07-19T12:20:44+00:00","timestamp":"2023-07-19T15:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"Ancient Egyptian History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33673"},"slug":"ancient-egyptian","categoryId":33673}],"title":"Ancient Egyptians For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"ancient egyptians for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"ancient-egyptians-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Ancient Egypt is famous for its history, architecture, religion . . . the list goes on! Here you’ll find a timeline detailing important periods that shaped this","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"<p>Ancient Egypt is famous for its history, architecture, religion . . . the list goes on! Here you’ll find a timeline detailing important periods that shaped this fascinating civilization. </p>\r\n","description":"<p>Ancient Egypt is famous for its history, architecture, religion . . . the list goes on! Here you’ll find a timeline detailing important periods that shaped this fascinating civilization. </p>\r\n","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":10197,"name":"Charlotte Booth","slug":"charlotte-booth","description":" <b>Charlotte Booth</b>, MA, is an Egyptologist, lecturer, and founder of the Essex Egyptology Group.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10197"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33673,"title":"Ancient Egyptian History","slug":"ancient-egyptian","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33673"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":188549,"title":"Ancient Egypt Timeline","slug":"ancient-egypt-timeline","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","ancient-egyptian"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/188549"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":188549,"title":"Ancient Egypt Timeline","slug":"ancient-egypt-timeline","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","ancient-egyptian"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/188549"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281543,"slug":"the-ancient-egyptians-for-dummies","isbn":"9780470065440","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","ancient-egyptian"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0470065443/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/0470065443/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/0470065443-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0470065443/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/0470065443/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/the-ancient-egyptians-for-dummies-cover-9780470065440-201x255.jpg","width":201,"height":255},"title":"The Ancient Egyptians For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<b data-author-id=\"10197\">Charlotte Booth</b>, MA, is an Egyptologist, lecturer, and founder of the Essex Egyptology Group.","authors":[{"authorId":10197,"name":"Charlotte Booth","slug":"charlotte-booth","description":" <b>Charlotte Booth</b>, MA, is an Egyptologist, lecturer, and founder of the Essex Egyptology Group.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10197"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;ancient-egyptian&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9780470065440&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64b7faaeddfb6\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;ancient-egyptian&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9780470065440&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64b7faaede8a8\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Ancient Egypt Timeline","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Here&#8217;s an overview of periods of Egyptian history. Some of the dates and dynasties overlap, especially during the Intermediate Periods, because different kings ruled different parts of Egypt at the same time &#8211; all holding the title of king. </p>\n<h2>Predynastic Period </h2>\n<p>The Badarian period: 4400&#8211;4000 BC</p>\n<p>Maadian period: 4000&#8211;3300 BC</p>\n<p>The Amratian period: 4000&#8211;3500 BC</p>\n<p>The Gerzean period: 3500&#8211;3200 BC</p>\n<p>The Negada III period: 3200&#8211;3050 BC</p>\n<h2>Early Dynastic Period</h2>\n<p>Dynasty 0: 3150&#8211;3050 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 1: 3050&#8211;2890 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 2: 2890 &#8211;2686 BC</p>\n<h2>Old Kingdom</h2>\n<p>Dynasty 3: 2686&#8211;2613 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 4: 2613&#8211;2500 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 5: 2498&#8211;2345 BC </p>\n<p>Dynasty 6: 2345&#8211;2333 BC</p>\n<h2>First Intermediate Period</h2>\n<p>Dynasty 7 and 8: 2180&#8211;2160 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 9 and 10: 2160&#8211;2040 BC</p>\n<h2>Middle Kingdom</h2>\n<p>Dynasty 11: 2134&#8211;1991 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 12: 1991&#8211;1782 BC</p>\n<h2>Second Intermediate Period</h2>\n<p>Dynasty 13: 1782 &#8211;1650 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 14: Dates unknown. This dynasty is characterised by a few chieftains ruling one town, calling themselves kings.</p>\n<p>Dynasty 15: 1663&#8211;1555 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 16: 1663&#8211;1555 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 17: 1663&#8211;1570 BC</p>\n<h2>New Kingdom </h2>\n<p>Dynasty 18: 1570&#8211;1293 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 19: 1293&#8211;1185 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 20: 1185&#8211;1070 BC</p>\n<h2>Third Intermediate Period</h2>\n<p>High Priests (Thebes): 1080&#8211;945 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 21 (Tanis): 1069&#8211;945 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 22 (Tanis): 945&#8211;715 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 23 (Leontopolis): 818&#8211;715 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 24 (Sais): 727&#8211;715 BC </p>\n<p>Dynasty 25 (Nubians): 747&#8211;656 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 26 (Sais): 664&#8211;525 BC</p>\n<h2>Late Period</h2>\n<p>Dynasty 27 (Persian): 525&#8211;404 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 28: 404&#8211;399 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 29: 399&#8211;380 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 30: 380&#8211;343 BC</p>\n<p>Dynasty 31: 343&#8211;332 BC</p>\n<h2>Graeco-Roman Period</h2>\n<p>Macedonian Kings: 332&#8211;305 BC</p>\n<p>Ptolemaic Period: 305&#8211;30 BC</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2023-07-19T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208682},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T20:42:02+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-07-19T12:20:26+00:00","timestamp":"2023-07-19T15:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"Ancient Egyptian History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33673"},"slug":"ancient-egyptian","categoryId":33673}],"title":"Ancient Egypt Timeline","strippedTitle":"ancient egypt timeline","slug":"ancient-egypt-timeline","canonicalUrl":"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/history/ancient-egyptian/ancient-egyptians-for-dummies-cheat-sheet-208682/","seo":{"metaDescription":"Here’s an overview of periods of Egyptian history. Some of the dates and dynasties overlap, especially during the Intermediate Periods, because different kings ","noIndex":1,"noFollow":0},"content":"<p>Here’s an overview of periods of Egyptian history. Some of the dates and dynasties overlap, especially during the Intermediate Periods, because different kings ruled different parts of Egypt at the same time – all holding the title of king. </p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Predynastic Period </h2>\r\n<p>The Badarian period: 4400–4000 BC</p>\r\n<p>Maadian period: 4000–3300 BC</p>\r\n<p>The Amratian period: 4000–3500 BC</p>\r\n<p>The Gerzean period: 3500–3200 BC</p>\r\n<p>The Negada III period: 3200–3050 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Early Dynastic Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 0: 3150–3050 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 1: 3050–2890 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 2: 2890 –2686 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Old Kingdom</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 3: 2686–2613 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 4: 2613–2500 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 5: 2498–2345 BC </p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 6: 2345–2333 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >First Intermediate Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 7 and 8: 2180–2160 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 9 and 10: 2160–2040 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >Middle Kingdom</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 11: 2134–1991 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 12: 1991–1782 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >Second Intermediate Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 13: 1782 –1650 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 14: Dates unknown. This dynasty is characterised by a few chieftains ruling one town, calling themselves kings.</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 15: 1663–1555 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 16: 1663–1555 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 17: 1663–1570 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab7\" >New Kingdom </h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 18: 1570–1293 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 19: 1293–1185 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 20: 1185–1070 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab8\" >Third Intermediate Period</h2>\r\n<p>High Priests (Thebes): 1080–945 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 21 (Tanis): 1069–945 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 22 (Tanis): 945–715 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 23 (Leontopolis): 818–715 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 24 (Sais): 727–715 BC </p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 25 (Nubians): 747–656 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 26 (Sais): 664–525 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab9\" >Late Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 27 (Persian): 525–404 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 28: 404–399 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 29: 399–380 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 30: 380–343 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 31: 343–332 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab10\" >Graeco-Roman Period</h2>\r\n<p>Macedonian Kings: 332–305 BC</p>\r\n<p>Ptolemaic Period: 305–30 BC</p>","description":"<p>Here’s an overview of periods of Egyptian history. Some of the dates and dynasties overlap, especially during the Intermediate Periods, because different kings ruled different parts of Egypt at the same time – all holding the title of king. </p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Predynastic Period </h2>\r\n<p>The Badarian period: 4400–4000 BC</p>\r\n<p>Maadian period: 4000–3300 BC</p>\r\n<p>The Amratian period: 4000–3500 BC</p>\r\n<p>The Gerzean period: 3500–3200 BC</p>\r\n<p>The Negada III period: 3200–3050 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Early Dynastic Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 0: 3150–3050 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 1: 3050–2890 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 2: 2890 –2686 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Old Kingdom</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 3: 2686–2613 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 4: 2613–2500 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 5: 2498–2345 BC </p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 6: 2345–2333 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >First Intermediate Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 7 and 8: 2180–2160 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 9 and 10: 2160–2040 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >Middle Kingdom</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 11: 2134–1991 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 12: 1991–1782 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >Second Intermediate Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 13: 1782 –1650 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 14: Dates unknown. This dynasty is characterised by a few chieftains ruling one town, calling themselves kings.</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 15: 1663–1555 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 16: 1663–1555 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 17: 1663–1570 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab7\" >New Kingdom </h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 18: 1570–1293 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 19: 1293–1185 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 20: 1185–1070 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab8\" >Third Intermediate Period</h2>\r\n<p>High Priests (Thebes): 1080–945 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 21 (Tanis): 1069–945 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 22 (Tanis): 945–715 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 23 (Leontopolis): 818–715 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 24 (Sais): 727–715 BC </p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 25 (Nubians): 747–656 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 26 (Sais): 664–525 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab9\" >Late Period</h2>\r\n<p>Dynasty 27 (Persian): 525–404 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 28: 404–399 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 29: 399–380 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 30: 380–343 BC</p>\r\n<p>Dynasty 31: 343–332 BC</p>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab10\" >Graeco-Roman Period</h2>\r\n<p>Macedonian Kings: 332–305 BC</p>\r\n<p>Ptolemaic Period: 305–30 BC</p>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":10197,"name":"Charlotte Booth","slug":"charlotte-booth","description":" <b>Charlotte Booth</b>, MA, is an Egyptologist, lecturer, and founder of the Essex Egyptology Group.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10197"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33673,"title":"Ancient Egyptian History","slug":"ancient-egyptian","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33673"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Predynastic Period ","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Early Dynastic Period","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Old Kingdom","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"First Intermediate Period","target":"#tab4"},{"label":"Middle Kingdom","target":"#tab5"},{"label":"Second 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Blackwell</strong>, PhD, is the Louis G. Forgione University Professor of Classics at Furman University.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9388,"name":"Amy Hackney Blackwell","slug":"amy-hackney-blackwell","description":"<span class=\"a-text-bold\"><strong>Amy Hackney Blackwell</strong>, PhD,</span> has spent her career producing educational content on science, history, and the law.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9388"}},{"authorId":35308,"name":"Christopher Blackwell","slug":"christopher-blackwell","description":"<strong>Christopher W. Blackwell</strong>, PhD, is the Louis G. Forgione University Professor of Classics at Furman University.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/35308"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;ancient-greek&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781394187935&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64a5afdf434ba\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;ancient-greek&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781394187935&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64a5afdf43ba3\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":194095,"title":"Greek and Roman Mythology Names","slug":"gods-and-goddesses-of-greek-and-roman-mythology","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","ancient-greek"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/194095"}},{"articleId":194099,"title":"A Timeline of World Civilizations for Mythology","slug":"a-timeline-of-world-civilizations-for-mythology","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/194099"}}],"content":[{"title":"Comparing Greek and Roman deities","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Even though <a href=\"https://dummies-wp-admin.dummies.com/education/history/world-history/understanding-the-origin-of-the-greek-gods/\">Greek</a> and <a href=\"https://dummies-wp-admin.dummies.com/education/history/world-history/figuring-out-how-roman-mythology-got-so-darned-mixed-up/\">Roman</a>  mythologies are just a small part of all the world’s mythologies, they tend to show up a lot in the world of art, business, and technology today. Both of these cultures include gods and goddesses who interact with humans, with good, bad, and indifferent motives.</p>\n<p class=\"SortTitle\">The Greek names of the gods and goddesses varied from the Roman names, although each culture attributed comparable powers and spheres of influence to the deities. The following table shows those areas and the names of the important deities in each mythology.</p>\n<div class=\"figure-container\"><figure id=\"attachment_243788\" aria-labelledby=\"figcaption_attachment_243788\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"width: 510px\"><a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/greek-mythology-names.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-243788\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/greek-mythology-names.jpg\" alt=\"greek-mythology-names\" width=\"500\" height=\"400\" /></a><figcaption id=\"figcaption_attachment_243788\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">© Vuk Kostic / Shutterstock<br />Zeus throwing lightning</figcaption></figure></div><div class=\"clearfix\"></div>\n<h3>Greek and Roman Mythology Names</h3>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Greek Name</strong></td>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Roman Name</strong></td>\n<td width=\"208\"><strong>Description</strong></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Zeus</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Jupiter</td>\n<td width=\"208\">King of gods</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Hera</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Juno</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of marriage</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Poseidon</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Neptune</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of the sea</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Cronos</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Saturn</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Youngest son of Uranus, father of Zeus/Jupiter. His son took over being king of the gods, but he kept his job as a sky-god who presided over agricultural harvests.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Aphrodite</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Venus</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of love</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Hades</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Pluto</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of the underworld</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Hephaistos</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Vulcan</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of the forge</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Demeter</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Ceres</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of the harvest</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Apollo</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Apollo</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of music and medicine</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Athena</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Minerva</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of wisdom</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Artemis</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Diana</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of the hunt</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Ares</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Mars</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of war</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Hermes</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Mercury</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Messenger of the gods</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Dionysus</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Bacchus</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of wine</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Persephone</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Proserpine</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of underworld</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Eros</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Cupid</td>\n<td width=\"208\">God of love</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"208\">Gaia</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Gaea</td>\n<td width=\"208\">Goddess of earth</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>Besides these gods and goddesses, Greek mythology in particular has many other gods and immortals.</p>\n<p>Like the Christian god, Jehovah, Zeus or Jupiter was considered the almighty father. But instead of being the father of humans, he was the father of the lesser gods.</p>\n"},{"title":"Gods as teachers","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Although people today think of these Greek gods and goddesses as creatures of mythology, remember that to the ancient Greeks, they were no less real than current beliefs in deities like God or legendary spiritual leaders like Buddha.</p>\n<p>Modern society has come to see the stories of the gods as metaphors for teaching lessons about behaviors and actions, even though the gods and goddesses in Greek (and Roman) mythology exhibit many of the weaknesses, such as pettiness, that you may not associate with deities.</p>\n<p>Around the world, the figures of mythology play the role of teacher. The Egyptian goddess Sheshat taught people wisdom and how to write. The Armenian god Tir taught humans writing and other academic subjects.</p>\n<p>Here are some of other gods that function as teachers:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Quetzalcoatl (among the Aztecs)</li>\n<li>Ogma (among the Scots and Irish)</li>\n<li>Wénchāng Wáng (among the ancient Chinese)</li>\n<li>Athena (the Greeks, also Minerva for the Romans and Menrva for the Etruscans)</li>\n<li>Saraswati (the Hindu people of India)</li>\n<li>Benzaiten and Tenjin (in ancient Japan)</li>\n<li>Nabu (the Babylonian god of writing)</li>\n<li>Hnašká (who taught humans medicine, according to the Lakota of North America)</li>\n<li>Odin (the northern European god who was always searching for knowledge)</li>\n<li>Anansi (the spidergod of West Africa who taught humans agriculture).</li>\n</ul>\n<p>We might of course include the prophets and teachers of religions practiced by many people today</p>\n<ul>\n<li>The Buddha</li>\n<li>Moses</li>\n<li>Jesus Christ</li>\n<li>Muhammad</li>\n<li>Confucius</li>\n</ul>\n<p>One lesson the Greek myths loved to teach was the lesson of <em>hubris,</em> or pride. Whenever a mortal displays hubris, thinking they’re better than the gods, they inevitably experience a resulting tragedy.</p>\n<p>If one of the lesser gods starts thinking they’re more powerful than Zeus, they, too, get knocked down a peg. This type of metaphorical lesson also shows up in the stories of the Bible, Shakespearian tragedies, and even in modern literature and art.</p>\n<p>Many myths also explain various aspects of the world, from how the world was created to the changing of the seasons and beyond. For example, Persephone (Zeus and Demeter’s daughter) was stolen by Hades to be his queen in the underworld.</p>\n<p>Her mother, the earth goddess, refused to fulfill her duties until a compromise allowed Persephone to spend four to six months (depending on the version of the myth) with her mother; that’s spring and summer. She spends the rest of the year in the underworld, during which time the earth goddess still goes on strike, resulting in fall and winter.</p>\n"},{"title":"Seeing connections between ancient myths and modern religions","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Every religion has a creation “myth,” although those who currently practice a religion would argue that it isn’t myth. The Judeo-Christian story tells of God creating the heavens and the earth and of the first man and woman in the Garden of Eden.</p>\n<p>The Greeks actually had several creation myths, including one involving an egg that hatched all planets, the earth, and all creatures.</p>\n<p>Here are some other interesting parallels:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Eve, the first woman in Judeo-Christian religions, was tempted into sin by the serpent and ate from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. As a punishment, Adam (the first man) and Eve are kicked out of the Garden of Eden, where they had everything they wanted. Similarly, the first woman in Greek mythology, Pandora, is tempted to open a forbidden box (or, in some versions, a jar) and brings chaos by releasing all the ills of the world.</li>\n<li>Ancient Greeks believed the first humans were destroyed in a great flood sent by Zeus. The only survivors were Deucalion and his wife. This myth parallels the story of Noah and his ark.</li>\n<li>Mount Olympus itself is often considered to be the Ancient Greeks’ version of heaven, and Hades, named for the god who ruled the underworld, is the equivalent of the Christian hell.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Tracking mythology and civilization","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Mythology tries to explain the world and therefore reflects the culture, events, and history of the societies that create the stories handed down as myths. Here are a few examples:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Egypt’s Nile River routinely overflowed its banks, leaving fertile ground as it receded. This cycle became the basis for Egyptian religion, which demanded the people help the gods prevent anything from interfering with the cycle.</li>\n<li>Myths form around the founding of cities and civilizations, including the creation myths passed down in virtually every culture.</li>\n<li>Myths account for astrological occurrences as well as for more earthbound events.</li>\n<li>The Dogon people of Mali explain why humans come in male and female forms with their creation myth, and that all creatures have female and masculine energies.</li>\n<li>Famous poems, such as <em>Beowulf</em> and the <em>Saga of the Volsungs,</em> are combinations of history and legend. The stories of the mythical Br’er Rabbit, who wins every encounter against his adversaries despite his subservient position, inspired hope in Africans who were enslaved in the United States during the Civil War era.</li>\n</ul>\n<p>And don’t assume all myths are hundreds or thousands of years old. The “mythical” city of Brigadoon, a Scottish village that appears once every hundred years, was essentially the invention of Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe, who wrote a play about it in 1947.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2023-07-03T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":209250},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2021-10-08T14:46:05+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-06-21T16:57:31+00:00","timestamp":"2023-06-21T18:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"first ladies for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"These events in the history of American first ladies shaped the evolving office of First Lady and the women themselves.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"This Cheat Sheet focuses on 50 key dates in the history of first ladies of the United States. These events mark the unique and continuing evolution of the office of First Lady and the first ladies themselves.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_298956\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-298956\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/jackie-kennedy.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy\" width=\"630\" height=\"658\" /> ©Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division<br />Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy[/caption]","description":"This Cheat Sheet focuses on 50 key dates in the history of first ladies of the United States. These events mark the unique and continuing evolution of the office of First Lady and the first ladies themselves.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_298956\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-298956\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/jackie-kennedy.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy\" width=\"630\" height=\"658\" /> ©Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division<br />Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy[/caption]","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9725,"name":"Marcus A. Stadelmann","slug":"marcus-stadelmann","description":"Marcus A. Stadelmann, PhD, is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9725"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American History","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":299292,"title":"The Final Events that Led To the American Revolution","slug":"the-final-events-that-led-to-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/299292"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"U.S. Presidential Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"The Controversial Style of Trump's Presidency","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":288806,"slug":"first-ladies-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119822196","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/111982219X-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/first-ladies-for-dummies-cover-9781119822196-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"First Ladies For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"34802\">Marcus A. Stadelmann</b>, PhD,</b> is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":34802,"name":"Marcus A. Stadelmann","slug":"marcus-a-stadelmann","description":" <p><b>Marcus A. Stadelmann, PhD,</b> is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34802"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[{"title":"Wonder Women","slug":"wonder-women","collectionId":291389}],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119822196&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64933adf0c423\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119822196&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64933adf0d291\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Events during the 1700s and 1800s","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>June 3, 1781</strong>: Martha Jefferson dies. She is the first First Lady to die before her husband becomes president.</p>\n<p><strong>April 30, 1789</strong>: Martha Washington becomes the first First Lady of the United States. People refer to her as Lady Washington.</p>\n<p><strong>November 1800</strong>: Abigail Adams moves into the new president’s house in Washington, D.C., which is later called the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>August 24, 1814</strong>: The British burn down the White House, after First Lady Dolley Madison was able to save many U.S. historical treasures.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1817</strong>: Elizabeth Monroe becomes the only wife of a president whose father fought for the British during the Revolutionary War.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1825</strong>: John Quincy Adams becomes president, making his mother, Abigail Adams, the first First Lady to be married to a president and to be the mother of a president.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1825</strong>: Louisa Adams becomes the first wife of a president to be born in a foreign country. She was born in Great Britain to an American father.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1837</strong>: Martin Van Buren becomes president of the United States. His wife, Hannah, who had passed in 1819, is the only First Lady married to her first cousin, good old Martin.</p>\n<p><strong>September 10, 1842</strong>: Letitia Tyler becomes the first wife of a president to die in the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>June 26, 1844</strong>: Julia Tyler becomes the first woman to marry a sitting president. She is also the first wife of a sitting president to be photographed.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1845</strong>: Anna Harrison becomes the first and only First Lady to be a wife to a president and the grandmother of a president.</p>\n<p><strong>1849</strong>: President Zachary Taylor coins the term <em>First Lady</em> in a eulogy given for Dolley Madison at her state funeral.</p>\n<p><strong>July 9, 1850</strong>: Abigail Fillmore becomes the first wife of a president to work and have a salary. She was a school teacher. She also establishes the first library in the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1857</strong>: Harriet Lane becomes the first niece of a president to become First Lady. Her uncle President James Buchanan had been a bachelor all his life.</p>\n<p><strong>April 14, 1865</strong>: Mary Todd Lincoln becomes the first First Lady whose husband, Abraham Lincoln, is assassinated.</p>\n<p><strong>March 5, 1877</strong>: Lucy Hayes becomes the first wife of a president to have a college degree.</p>\n<p><strong>1886</strong>: Martha Washington becomes the first and only woman to be featured on the one dollar bill.</p>\n<p><strong>June 2, 1886</strong>: Frances Cleveland marries President Grover Cleveland who is 27 years her senior. She is the first wife of a president to get married in the White House, to give birth in the White House, and to remarry after her husband dies.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1889</strong>: Caroline Harrison becomes First Lady and introduces the tradition of having a Christmas tree in the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>October 3, 1891</strong>: Frances Cleveland gives birth to a daughter and becomes the only First Lady to have a candy bar named in the honor of daughter Ruth (Baby Ruth).</p>\n<p><strong>1890s</strong>: Julia Grant becomes the first wife of a president to write her memoirs. They are finally published in 1975.</p>\n"},{"title":"Events during the 1900s","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>March 4, 1909</strong>: Helen Taft becomes the first wife of a president to own and drive a car.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1913</strong>: Ellen Wilson is the only professional artist to become a First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>1914</strong>: Helen Taft becomes the first former First Lady to write and publish her memoirs, <em>Recollections of Full Years.</em></p>\n<p><strong>1919</strong>: Edith Wilson is the only First Lady to run the White House during her husband’s illness. She was also a direct descendant of Pocahontas and is the first wife of a president to receive Secret Service protection.</p>\n<p><strong>November 2, 1920</strong>: Florence Harding is the first wife of a president to be able to vote for her husband.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1929</strong>: Lou Hoover becomes the first wife of a president to have a degree in geology from Stanford University and to be able to speak fluent Chinese.</p>\n<p><strong>January 5, 1933</strong>: Grace Coolidge becomes the first former First Lady to receive an honorary degree from an American university (University of Vermont).</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1933</strong>: Eleanor Roosevelt becomes the first First Lady to hold press conferences, write weekly and monthly newspaper columns, and host a radio show.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1941</strong>: Eleanor Roosevelt becomes the first and only wife of a president to serve for more than eight years. She ended up being First Lady for 12 years.</p>\n<p><strong>1945:</strong> Bess Truman becomes First Lady of the United States. She held one press conference, hated it, and never had another one.</p>\n<p><strong>1951</strong>: Jaqueline Kennedy interviews her future husband and future president, John F. Kennedy. They got married in 1953.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1953</strong>: Mamie Eisenhower becomes First Lady of the United States. Besides loving the color pink, she is the first wife of a president to not only appear on television but to also actually be in a presidential campaign ad.</p>\n<p><strong>1962</strong>: Jaqueline Kennedy becomes the only First Lady to win an Emmy award for her television special on the renovated White House.</p>\n<p><strong>1963</strong>: Lady Bird Johnson becomes the first wife of a president who already is a millionaire before becoming First Lady. She owned a media empire in the Austin, Texas, area.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1969</strong>: Pat Nixon becomes the first wife of a president with a graduate degree, and she also was the first to wear pants in public as First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1977</strong>: Rosalynn Carter becomes First Lady. She establishes her own workspace in the East Wing of the White House, which today is called the Office of the First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1981</strong>: Nancy Reagan becomes the first actress to become First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1989</strong>: Barbara Bush becomes the only First Lady to write a bestseller from the point of her dog. It is called <em>Millie’s Book as dictated to Barbara Bush.</em></p>\n"},{"title":"Events during the 2000s","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>November 2000</strong>: Hillary Clinton becomes the first former First Lady to be elected to public office when she is elected U.S. Senator from the State of New York.</p>\n<p><strong>November 17, 2001</strong>: Laura Bush becomes the first wife of a president to substitute for her husband in the weekly presidential radio address.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2001</strong>: Barbara Bush becomes the second First Lady whose husband and son were presidents of the United States.</p>\n<p><strong>January 2009</strong>: Hillary Clinton becomes the first former First Lady to become Secretary of State. She held the position until 2013.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2009</strong>: Michelle Obama becomes the first African American First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>2016</strong>: Hillary Clinton becomes the first wife of a president to be nominated by a major political party to be its presidential candidate. She loses a close election to Republican Donald Trump.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2017</strong>: Melania Trump becomes the second foreign-born First Lady. She was born in Slovenia, back then a part of the former Yugoslavia.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2017</strong>: Melania Trump becomes the first naturalized citizen to become First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2021</strong>: Jill Biden becomes the first wife of a president to have a doctorate.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2021</strong>: Jill Biden becomes the oldest First Lady to date at the age of 69.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-10-08T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":288783},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T14:38:16+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-06-20T19:51:44+00:00","timestamp":"2023-06-20T21:01:03+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"British History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33675"},"slug":"british","categoryId":33675}],"title":"Queen Elizabeth II: 70 Years of Devotion to the UK","strippedTitle":"queen elizabeth ii: 70 years of devotion to the uk","slug":"queen-elizabeth-ii-over-60-years-of-service-to-the-united-kingdom","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Prior to her accession to the throne on her 21st birthday, Elizabeth spoke to the nations of the British Commonwealth via radio broadcast, saying, \"I declare be","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Prior to her accession to the throne on her 21st birthday, Elizabeth spoke to the nations of the British Commonwealth via radio broadcast, saying, \"I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.\" This commitment to serve the people of the Commonwealth characterized her reign from the beginning to her death in 2022.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 113px;\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"113\"]<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/383336.image0.jpg\" alt=\"© iStockphoto.com/Sung Kuk Kim 2013\" width=\"113\" height=\"138\" /> © iStockphoto.com/Sung Kuk Kim 2013[/caption]\r\n\r\n</div>\r\nQueen Elizabeth’s reign started in 1952 when she was just 25 years old. She reigned through decades of enormous social change and development within the United Kingdom and around the world.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >The reign of Queen Elizabeth II</h2>\r\nTraditionally, the head of the British Commonwealth takes no official stance on public policy and remains neutral on party politics. Being the traditionalist, Queen Elizabeth kept her views on political issues mostly private.\r\n\r\nIt is considered \"bad form\" to repeat anything that the Queen says in private and British newspapers had a long-standing policy of not publishing the Queen’s private utterances. As a result, the Queen's public actions and words influenced the culture of her nation in ways that no elected official could.\r\n\r\nFor example, in 2011, Queen Elizabeth made the first trip to the Irish Republic by a British monarch in over a century. The visit, in and of itself, carried significance, but to make sure the point was not missed, Queen Elizabeth arrived wearing an emerald green suit, surrounded by ladies-in-waiting also wearing shades of green.\r\n\r\nShe publicly encouraged both sides of the English-Irish conflict \"to bow to the past but not be bound by it.\" She visited the Garden of Remembrance, the sacred ground for Irish patriots who died battling for independence, where she bowed her head in reverence. She also visited Croke Park, the site of <i>Bloody Sunday</i> in 1920, where 14 Irish civilians died after British forces opened fire on them.\r\n\r\nThus, without voicing a political position, Queen Elizabeth II set the stage for improved relations between the peoples and governments of these two Commonwealth nations over which she reigned.\r\n\r\nIn 2013, the Queen publicly signed a Commonwealth Charter that opposes \"all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, color, creed, political belief, or other grounds.\" With the stroke of the pen, the queen made a symbolic pledge for equal rights for all people in the 54 countries around the world that belong to the British Commonwealth. Never in her years as monarch had she done anything like it before.\r\n\r\nThe press speculated that the signing of the Commonwealth Charter signaled the Queen's support of gay rights. \"The queen has to remain politically neutral,\" ABC News royal contributor Victoria Arbiter said. \"While we won't hear her personal views on this, the fact that she is endorsing it publicly in front of television cameras, it really does speak volumes.\"\r\n\r\nThrough the course of her reign, Queen Elizabeth introduced reforms to the monarchy. In 1992, she volunteered to start paying both income and capital gains taxes. She opened her official residencies to the public — including Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle — in order to finance their maintenance.\r\n\r\nShe supported ending the rule of male primogeniture, meaning the eldest child can succeed to the throne, regardless of gender. On October 28, 2011, the 16 Commonwealth countries at the Perth Commonwealth Summit voted unanimously to scrap male primogeniture in the British royal family. Henceforth, the oldest child in the direct line would be heir, regardless of gender.\r\n\r\nDespite her reputation for being distant and aloof, Queen Elizabeth II brought a personal touch to the British monarchy, introducing more informal engagements and increasing the number of visits to both countries within and outside of the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth was said to be the most well-travelled British monarch in history.\r\n\r\nAs a means of staying connected to the people she served, Elizabeth II also introduced the <i>walkabout</i>, in which she met and greeted large numbers of the public. In 1981, on one of the royal walkabouts, a British subject seeking fame and notoriety fired six blank shots at her. Despite the danger presented by these up close and personal appearances, she continued to do the walkabouts regularly.\r\n\r\nThe Queen’s own service leadership works to encourage others to volunteer and serve their communities. Her Majesty was involved with more than 600 charities and non-profit organizations — she served to bring recognition to their achievements and contributions and to persuade other people to join.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >The personal side of Queen Elizabeth II</h2>\r\nIt is said that when Elizabeth met Prince Philip, even though she was only 13 years old, she fell in love with him and they began exchanging letters. They were officially engaged on July 9, 1947 and they were married on November 20, 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They had four children, Charles, Anne, Andrew and Edward.\r\n\r\nDuring the Queen’s reign she experienced personal tragedies, including the death of her father at 56, the breakdown of her children’s marriages — particularly that of Prince Charles and Princess Diana of Wales — and the tragic death of Princess Diana in 1997. Her mother and sister also passed during her reign, both in 2002.","description":"Prior to her accession to the throne on her 21st birthday, Elizabeth spoke to the nations of the British Commonwealth via radio broadcast, saying, \"I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.\" This commitment to serve the people of the Commonwealth characterized her reign from the beginning to her death in 2022.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 113px;\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"113\"]<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/383336.image0.jpg\" alt=\"© iStockphoto.com/Sung Kuk Kim 2013\" width=\"113\" height=\"138\" /> © iStockphoto.com/Sung Kuk Kim 2013[/caption]\r\n\r\n</div>\r\nQueen Elizabeth’s reign started in 1952 when she was just 25 years old. She reigned through decades of enormous social change and development within the United Kingdom and around the world.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >The reign of Queen Elizabeth II</h2>\r\nTraditionally, the head of the British Commonwealth takes no official stance on public policy and remains neutral on party politics. Being the traditionalist, Queen Elizabeth kept her views on political issues mostly private.\r\n\r\nIt is considered \"bad form\" to repeat anything that the Queen says in private and British newspapers had a long-standing policy of not publishing the Queen’s private utterances. As a result, the Queen's public actions and words influenced the culture of her nation in ways that no elected official could.\r\n\r\nFor example, in 2011, Queen Elizabeth made the first trip to the Irish Republic by a British monarch in over a century. The visit, in and of itself, carried significance, but to make sure the point was not missed, Queen Elizabeth arrived wearing an emerald green suit, surrounded by ladies-in-waiting also wearing shades of green.\r\n\r\nShe publicly encouraged both sides of the English-Irish conflict \"to bow to the past but not be bound by it.\" She visited the Garden of Remembrance, the sacred ground for Irish patriots who died battling for independence, where she bowed her head in reverence. She also visited Croke Park, the site of <i>Bloody Sunday</i> in 1920, where 14 Irish civilians died after British forces opened fire on them.\r\n\r\nThus, without voicing a political position, Queen Elizabeth II set the stage for improved relations between the peoples and governments of these two Commonwealth nations over which she reigned.\r\n\r\nIn 2013, the Queen publicly signed a Commonwealth Charter that opposes \"all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, color, creed, political belief, or other grounds.\" With the stroke of the pen, the queen made a symbolic pledge for equal rights for all people in the 54 countries around the world that belong to the British Commonwealth. Never in her years as monarch had she done anything like it before.\r\n\r\nThe press speculated that the signing of the Commonwealth Charter signaled the Queen's support of gay rights. \"The queen has to remain politically neutral,\" ABC News royal contributor Victoria Arbiter said. \"While we won't hear her personal views on this, the fact that she is endorsing it publicly in front of television cameras, it really does speak volumes.\"\r\n\r\nThrough the course of her reign, Queen Elizabeth introduced reforms to the monarchy. In 1992, she volunteered to start paying both income and capital gains taxes. She opened her official residencies to the public — including Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle — in order to finance their maintenance.\r\n\r\nShe supported ending the rule of male primogeniture, meaning the eldest child can succeed to the throne, regardless of gender. On October 28, 2011, the 16 Commonwealth countries at the Perth Commonwealth Summit voted unanimously to scrap male primogeniture in the British royal family. Henceforth, the oldest child in the direct line would be heir, regardless of gender.\r\n\r\nDespite her reputation for being distant and aloof, Queen Elizabeth II brought a personal touch to the British monarchy, introducing more informal engagements and increasing the number of visits to both countries within and outside of the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth was said to be the most well-travelled British monarch in history.\r\n\r\nAs a means of staying connected to the people she served, Elizabeth II also introduced the <i>walkabout</i>, in which she met and greeted large numbers of the public. In 1981, on one of the royal walkabouts, a British subject seeking fame and notoriety fired six blank shots at her. Despite the danger presented by these up close and personal appearances, she continued to do the walkabouts regularly.\r\n\r\nThe Queen’s own service leadership works to encourage others to volunteer and serve their communities. Her Majesty was involved with more than 600 charities and non-profit organizations — she served to bring recognition to their achievements and contributions and to persuade other people to join.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >The personal side of Queen Elizabeth II</h2>\r\nIt is said that when Elizabeth met Prince Philip, even though she was only 13 years old, she fell in love with him and they began exchanging letters. They were officially engaged on July 9, 1947 and they were married on November 20, 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They had four children, Charles, Anne, Andrew and Edward.\r\n\r\nDuring the Queen’s reign she experienced personal tragedies, including the death of her father at 56, the breakdown of her children’s marriages — particularly that of Prince Charles and Princess Diana of Wales — and the tragic death of Princess Diana in 1997. Her mother and sister also passed during her reign, both in 2002.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9656,"name":"Laura Larimer","slug":"laura-larimer","description":"","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9656"}},{"authorId":9387,"name":"Scott Barnes","slug":"scott-barnes","description":"","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9387"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33675,"title":"British History","slug":"british","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33675"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"The reign of Queen Elizabeth II","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"The personal side of Queen Elizabeth II","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":290892,"title":"Queen Elizabeth II For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"queen-elizabeth-ii-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","british"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/290892"}},{"articleId":208891,"title":"The Tudors For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"the-tudors-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","british"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208891"}},{"articleId":208805,"title":"British History For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"british-history-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","british"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208805"}},{"articleId":207578,"title":"British Politics For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"british-politics-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","british"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207578"}},{"articleId":204934,"title":"Five Things You Should Know about Guy Fawkes Day","slug":"five-things-you-should-know-about-guy-fawkes-day","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","british"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/204934"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;british&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6492138f207b5\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;british&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6492138f20f7d\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Six months","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-04T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":164209},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2021-06-18T17:45:25+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-06-13T20:45:11+00:00","timestamp":"2023-06-13T21:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"Black American History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34543"},"slug":"black-american","categoryId":34543}],"title":"The History of Juneteenth","strippedTitle":"the history of juneteenth","slug":"the-history-behind-juneteenth","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"President Joe Biden has signed a bill making June 19 an annual federal holiday in the United States. Here's the history of Juneteenth.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed <a href=\"https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/06/18/a-proclamation-on-juneteenth-day-of-observance-2021/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">a bill</a> making June 19 an annual federal holiday in the United States. The day has come to be known as \"Juneteenth,\" a mashup of \"June\" and \"nineteenth,\" and has been celebrated as the end of legal enslavement in the United States.\r\n\r\nThe holiday recognizes June 19, 1865, when Union army soldiers, led by Gen. Gordon Granger, told the enslaved people in Galveston, Texas, that the Civil War was over and they'd been freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Lincoln January 1, 1863. The unconfirmed story is that enslaved people held in that coastal city were the last to learn of the end of the war — and the end of legal enslavement.\r\n\r\n“Great nations don’t ignore their most painful moments,” President Biden said during the signing ceremony at the White House. “They don’t ignore those moments of the past. They embrace them. Great nations don’t walk away. We come to terms with the mistakes we made. And in remembering those moments, we begin to heal and grow stronger.”\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_286107\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"710\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-286107\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/juneteenth-emancipation-day-historic-photo.jpg\" alt=\"Juneteenth Emancipation Day historic photo\" width=\"710\" height=\"509\" /> “Officers of the day” at a Juneteenth Emancipation Day celebration in Austin, Texas, June 19, 1900. Photo: PICA-05484 Austin History Center, Austin Public Library[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Juneteenth is a second independence holiday</h2>\r\nThe holiday's official name is Juneteenth National Independence Day, and it's the second annual celebration of independence in the United States, the first being July 4. That observance marks the day the 13 English colonies in North America ratified the Declaration of Independence, announcing their separation from English rule.\r\n\r\nJuneteenth National Independence Day commemorates when independence extended to everyone in the United States and freed nearly 4 million people from enslavement.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">With Biden's signature on the bill in 2021, Juneteenth became the 12th federal holiday — meaning all nonessential federal employees are given a paid holiday and financial markets are closed.</p>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">It joins New Year’s Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas as fixed-date holidays, or holidays that are celebrated on either the same calendar date or the closest weekday if the date falls on Saturday or Sunday. The United States celebrated the first federal Juneteenth holiday on Friday, June 18, 2021, because June 19 fell on a Saturday that year.</p>\r\nSince 2021, 49 states formally observe or celebrate the day in some way; eight states include it as a paid holiday for nonessential state employees.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Recent events raised awareness of Juneteenth</h2>\r\nAlthough many Americans were only vaguely familiar with Juneteenth before it became a federal holiday, it's been celebrated for more than 150 years. But the day drew widespread public attention in 2020. Civil rights protests following the murder of George Floyd by police in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on May 25, 2020, raised awareness of Juneteenth.\r\n\r\nAlso in 2020, public outcry over a campaign event in Tulsa, Oklahoma scheduled for June 19 by then-President Donald Trump, captured national media attention. Trump’s opponents argued that holding the event on Juneteenth in that city, where a massacre of Black citizens happened in 1921, would be disrespectful.\r\n\r\nOnce again, the uproar and media attention raised awareness of Juneteenth among many more Americans. Trump rescheduled his campaign event. Major U.S. companies including Nike, Twitter, Target, and John Wiley & Sons (home of <em>For Dummies</em>) offered Juneteenth as a holiday for employees that year.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >The long wait for freedom and citizenship</h2>\r\nAlthough Juneteenth has traditionally celebrated the end of enslavement of Black people in the United States, slavery did not formally come to an end nationwide until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on December 18, 1865. Before that amendment abolished slavery, the Emancipation Proclamation had freed only enslaved people in the states that seceded from the country at the beginning of the Civil War.\r\n\r\nThe legal status of people enslaved in states that didn’t secede but allowed enslavement — Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware — was unclear until the Thirteenth Amendment passed. Enslavement was not fully banned in the United States until 1866 when treaties with Native American tribes formally ended enslavement in territories controlled by those tribes.\r\n\r\nFinally, formerly enslaved people did not legally become US citizens with full protection under the law until ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment on July 28, 1868.\r\n\r\nThere's still debate over the date when legal enslavement of Black people in the United States actually ended. But, whatever the actual date, Juneteenth now marks the end of that painful period of U.S. history.","description":"On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed <a href=\"https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/06/18/a-proclamation-on-juneteenth-day-of-observance-2021/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">a bill</a> making June 19 an annual federal holiday in the United States. The day has come to be known as \"Juneteenth,\" a mashup of \"June\" and \"nineteenth,\" and has been celebrated as the end of legal enslavement in the United States.\r\n\r\nThe holiday recognizes June 19, 1865, when Union army soldiers, led by Gen. Gordon Granger, told the enslaved people in Galveston, Texas, that the Civil War was over and they'd been freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Lincoln January 1, 1863. The unconfirmed story is that enslaved people held in that coastal city were the last to learn of the end of the war — and the end of legal enslavement.\r\n\r\n“Great nations don’t ignore their most painful moments,” President Biden said during the signing ceremony at the White House. “They don’t ignore those moments of the past. They embrace them. Great nations don’t walk away. We come to terms with the mistakes we made. And in remembering those moments, we begin to heal and grow stronger.”\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_286107\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"710\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-286107\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/juneteenth-emancipation-day-historic-photo.jpg\" alt=\"Juneteenth Emancipation Day historic photo\" width=\"710\" height=\"509\" /> “Officers of the day” at a Juneteenth Emancipation Day celebration in Austin, Texas, June 19, 1900. Photo: PICA-05484 Austin History Center, Austin Public Library[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Juneteenth is a second independence holiday</h2>\r\nThe holiday's official name is Juneteenth National Independence Day, and it's the second annual celebration of independence in the United States, the first being July 4. That observance marks the day the 13 English colonies in North America ratified the Declaration of Independence, announcing their separation from English rule.\r\n\r\nJuneteenth National Independence Day commemorates when independence extended to everyone in the United States and freed nearly 4 million people from enslavement.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">With Biden's signature on the bill in 2021, Juneteenth became the 12th federal holiday — meaning all nonessential federal employees are given a paid holiday and financial markets are closed.</p>\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">It joins New Year’s Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas as fixed-date holidays, or holidays that are celebrated on either the same calendar date or the closest weekday if the date falls on Saturday or Sunday. The United States celebrated the first federal Juneteenth holiday on Friday, June 18, 2021, because June 19 fell on a Saturday that year.</p>\r\nSince 2021, 49 states formally observe or celebrate the day in some way; eight states include it as a paid holiday for nonessential state employees.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Recent events raised awareness of Juneteenth</h2>\r\nAlthough many Americans were only vaguely familiar with Juneteenth before it became a federal holiday, it's been celebrated for more than 150 years. But the day drew widespread public attention in 2020. Civil rights protests following the murder of George Floyd by police in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on May 25, 2020, raised awareness of Juneteenth.\r\n\r\nAlso in 2020, public outcry over a campaign event in Tulsa, Oklahoma scheduled for June 19 by then-President Donald Trump, captured national media attention. Trump’s opponents argued that holding the event on Juneteenth in that city, where a massacre of Black citizens happened in 1921, would be disrespectful.\r\n\r\nOnce again, the uproar and media attention raised awareness of Juneteenth among many more Americans. Trump rescheduled his campaign event. Major U.S. companies including Nike, Twitter, Target, and John Wiley & Sons (home of <em>For Dummies</em>) offered Juneteenth as a holiday for employees that year.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >The long wait for freedom and citizenship</h2>\r\nAlthough Juneteenth has traditionally celebrated the end of enslavement of Black people in the United States, slavery did not formally come to an end nationwide until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on December 18, 1865. Before that amendment abolished slavery, the Emancipation Proclamation had freed only enslaved people in the states that seceded from the country at the beginning of the Civil War.\r\n\r\nThe legal status of people enslaved in states that didn’t secede but allowed enslavement — Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware — was unclear until the Thirteenth Amendment passed. Enslavement was not fully banned in the United States until 1866 when treaties with Native American tribes formally ended enslavement in territories controlled by those tribes.\r\n\r\nFinally, formerly enslaved people did not legally become US citizens with full protection under the law until ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment on July 28, 1868.\r\n\r\nThere's still debate over the date when legal enslavement of Black people in the United States actually ended. But, whatever the actual date, Juneteenth now marks the end of that painful period of U.S. history.","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34543,"title":"Black American History","slug":"black-american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34543"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Juneteenth is a second independence holiday","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Recent events raised awareness of Juneteenth","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"The long wait for freedom and citizenship","target":"#tab3"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":296900,"title":"10 Places to Visit for Black History Month","slug":"experience-the-places-in-black-american-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","black-american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/296900"}},{"articleId":296887,"title":"The Rise of Black American Film Directors","slug":"the-rise-of-black-american-film-directors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","black-american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/296887"}},{"articleId":285269,"title":"Black American History For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"black-american-history-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","black-american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/285269"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;black-american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6488d90e89544\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;black-american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6488d90e89eaa\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"One year","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-06-18T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":286111},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2019-09-11T19:06:49+00:00","modifiedTime":"2023-06-09T14:43:32+00:00","timestamp":"2023-06-09T15:01:03+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"American Revolution For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"american revolution for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"american-revolution-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about the enduring structure of government the U.S. founding fathers laid down, including the Constitution and the Electoral College.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"One of the remarkable aspects of the American Revolution is the staying power of the basic structure of government the founding fathers laid down. That doesn’t mean, however, that the structure was either simple or perfect.\r\n\r\nTo help you understand a bit more about the complexities — and flaws — in the governmental building blocks they used, here are “backgrounders” on three of those blocks: the Electoral College, reapportionment (gerrymandering), and amending the U.S. Constitution.\r\n\r\nJust for fun, check out the mini-biographies on two interesting Americans from the period, Noah Webster and John Jacob Astor, and enjoy some non-government trivia you can use to amuse your admirers and annoy your enemies.","description":"One of the remarkable aspects of the American Revolution is the staying power of the basic structure of government the founding fathers laid down. That doesn’t mean, however, that the structure was either simple or perfect.\r\n\r\nTo help you understand a bit more about the complexities — and flaws — in the governmental building blocks they used, here are “backgrounders” on three of those blocks: the Electoral College, reapportionment (gerrymandering), and amending the U.S. Constitution.\r\n\r\nJust for fun, check out the mini-biographies on two interesting Americans from the period, Noah Webster and John Jacob Astor, and enjoy some non-government trivia you can use to amuse your admirers and annoy your enemies.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":" <p><b>Steve Wiegand</b> is an award&#45;winning political journalist and history writer. Over a 35&#45;year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9116"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American History","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":265932,"title":"Women in the American Revolution","slug":"women-in-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265932"}},{"articleId":265926,"title":"Native Americans in the Revolutionary War","slug":"native-americans-in-the-revolutionary-war","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265926"}},{"articleId":265923,"title":"Slavery and the American Revolution","slug":"slavery-and-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265923"}},{"articleId":265917,"title":"The Aftereffects of the American Revolution","slug":"the-impact-of-the-american-revolution-on-the-home-front","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265917"}},{"articleId":265911,"title":"The Lack of Unity in Early American Colonies","slug":"the-lack-of-unity-in-early-american-colonies","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265911"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"U.S. Presidential Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"The Controversial Style of Trump's Presidency","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281944,"slug":"american-revolution-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119593492","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119593492-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/american-revolution-for-dummies-cover-9781119593492-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"American Revolution For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9116\">Steve Wiegand</b></b> is an award&#45;winning political journalist and history writer. Over a 35&#45;year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":" <p><b>Steve Wiegand</b> is an award&#45;winning political journalist and history writer. Over a 35&#45;year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9116"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119593492&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64833eaf9f8aa\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119593492&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-64833eafa3b83\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":263954,"title":"All You Need to Know About the Electoral College","slug":"","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/263954"}},{"articleId":263957,"title":"What’s Gerrymandering, and Why Should You Care?","slug":"","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/263957"}},{"articleId":263961,"title":"Amending the U.S. Constitution","slug":"","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/263961"}},{"articleId":263964,"title":"“Revolutionary” Events During the American Revolution Era","slug":"","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/263964"}},{"articleId":263967,"title":"Mini-Bios of 2 Interesting American Revolutionaries","slug":"","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/263967"}}],"content":[{"title":"All you need to know about the Electoral College","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>It may not have a very good football team, but the Electoral College is a pretty important part of the way America picks its presidents. Here are some facts about the institution and the procedure it follows:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>The system is the offspring of compromise. When drafting the U.S. Constitution, big states favored choosing presidents via direct popular vote, which smaller states naturally opposed. Another proposal, to let Congress name the chief executive, threatened to upset the system of checks and balances among the three branches of government. So they came up with the Electoral College (although they didn’t call it that, the name came along later.)</li>\n<li>There are 538 electors, and it takes votes from 270 of them to be elected. Each state gets one elector for each member it has in Congress. The 23rd Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1961, gave three electors to the District of Columbia. The most populous state, California, has 55 electors, followed by Texas with 38, and New York with 29. Seven states — Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Alaska, Vermont, and Delaware — have three each.</li>\n<li>Electors are nominated in each state by political parties, either at conventions or by central committees. When you vote for president, you’re actually voting for nominees to the Electoral College. Qualifications to be an elector vary by state, but the Constitution bans federal officeholders from being electors.</li>\n<li>In all states but two, it’s a winner-take-all system: The candidate who wins the popular vote gets all the state’s electors. The two oddballs are Maine and Nebraska. In those states, the overall winner gets two electoral votes, while the rest are split according to who wins each congressional district. Electors for each state meet in their states after the general election and record their votes. The results are then sent to Congress, which tallies the score.</li>\n<li>There is no constitutional prohibition against an elector deciding to vote for someone other than the candidate he or she was elected to support. Some states have laws against “faithless electors,” but it happens anyway, and no one has ever been prosecuted for it. The last time it occurred was in 2016, when ten electors chose not to follow the voters’ will. The defection of faithless electors has never affected the outcome of an election.</li>\n<li>The best showing in the Electoral College by a “third-party” presidential candidate came in 1912, when Theodore Roosevelt, running as the Bull Moose Party nominee, garnered 88 votes. That was well short of the 266 needed at the time to win.</li>\n<li>As of 2019, five presidents had won the office by getting a majority of the electoral votes while losing the popular vote: John Quincy Adams in 1824; Rutherford B. Hayes in 1876; Benjamin Harrison in 1888; George W. Bush in 2000; and Donald J. Trump in 2016.</li>\n<li>Public opinion polls have routinely reported most Americans favor abolishing the Electoral College in favor of a direct popular vote for president. More than 700 proposals have been introduced in Congress over the decades to change the system, which would require amending the Constitution.</li>\n<li>As of spring 2019, 14 states and the District of Columbia, representing 189 electoral votes, had signed a National Popular Vote Interstate Compact. Under the compact, the signed-up states would agree to cast all their electoral votes for the winner of the national popular vote, no matter how he or she fared in the individual state. The compact would not take effect until states representing 270 electoral votes had joined.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"What is Gerrymandering and Why Should You Care?","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><em>Gerrymandering</em> is a time-tested technique employed by political parties to squeeze as much mileage out of the voters they rely on as possible.</p>\n<div class=\"figure-container\"><figure id=\"attachment_263958\" aria-labelledby=\"figcaption_attachment_263958\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"width: 393px\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-263958\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/american_revolution_gerrymandering.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"383\" height=\"400\" /><figcaption id=\"figcaption_attachment_263958\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Boston Centinel, March 1812</figcaption></figure></div><div class=\"clearfix\"></div>\n<p>Sure, this image could be something out of <em>Lord of the Rings</em> or <em>Game of Thrones,</em> but this cartoon is actually an 1812 newspaper cartoonist’s satirical representation of a portion of Massachusetts around Essex County — and an example of <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/politics-government/what-is-gerrymandering/\">gerrymandering</a><em>.</em> The creature’s namesake is Elbridge Gerry — Founding Father, U.S. diplomat, U.S. vice president — and an irascible and generally unlikeable politician if there ever was one.</p>\n<p>As governor of Massachusetts, Gerry signed a bill that created a state Senate district designed to consolidate enough Democratic-Republican voters so that the party would be almost assured to win the seat. Someone decided the district’s outline resembled a salamander, combined it with the governor’s surname, and voilà! — the term stuck.</p>\n<p>Sometimes gerrymandering involves contorting districts to encompass as many friendly voters as possible. Sometimes it involves <em>cracking,</em> a tactic in which district lines are drawn to scatter the opposition’s support as thinly as possible over multiple districts. Sometimes it centers on <em>packing,</em> where the opposition’s voters are crammed together, thus confining their clout into just one or two districts.</p>\n<p>Gerrymandering has been as tough to kill off as an ornery dragon. In most states, legislatures and governors hammer out district lines for state and federal offices and naturally look for every political advantage. (As of 2019, nine states had independent commissions do it.) In spring 2019, two gerrymander cases were pending before the U.S. Supreme Court. In earlier decisions, the court sidestepped ruling on the constitutionality of the practice.</p>\n"},{"title":"Amending the U.S. Constitution","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, one of the delegates remarked that it was good thing the document they were drafting could be amended, because it was going to need it. He was right, but maybe not as much as he thought. As of 2019 — 232 years later — the document had been amended only 27 times. The first ten came as the Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, and the last in 1992. Here’s a bit about the process and peculiarities of changing America’s basic laws:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Under Article 5 of the Constitution, an amendment can be put forward for ratification in one of two ways: By two-thirds majority votes in both houses of Congress or by a constitutional convention called by the legislatures of two-thirds of the states. As of 2019, there had never been a state-called constitutional convention. There is some debate among academics as to whether the Constitution could be amended through some kind of direct popular vote.</li>\n<li>A proposed amendment becomes ratified when three-fourths of the states (38 in 2019) have approved it. Congress can decide whether states must ratify through their legislatures, or through ratifying conventions. Only one amendment — the 21st, which repealed <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/history/american-history/the-twenty-first-amendment-of-the-u-s-constitution-repealing-prohibition/\">Prohibition</a> — has been added through state-ratifying conventions.</li>\n<li>Since 1917, Congress has had the power to decide how long a proposed amendment can float around waiting to be ratified. Prior to that, there was no time limit. Thus the 27th amendment — which prevents changes in congressional salaries taking effect until the next congressional session — took more than 202 years to be ratified: It was proposed as one of the original amendments in 1789 and wasn’t ratified until 1992.</li>\n<li>As of 2019, only six amendments had been proposed by Congress and not ratified. Their subjects included fixing a minimum number of members in the House of Representatives; stripping Americans of their citizenship if they accepted titles of nobility from foreign countries; prohibiting Congress from interfering with slavery; giving Congress the power to regulate labor conditions for those under the age of 18; guaranteeing equal rights to all citizens regardless of sex; and giving the District of Columbia full voting rights in Congress while stripping it of its three members of the Electoral College.</li>\n<li>Scores of proposed amendments have never made it out of Congress. They include banning from federal office anyone who was ever involved in a duel; abolition of the U.S. Senate; setting a limit on personal wealth of $1 million; requiring the federal budget be balanced; making it a federal crime to burn an American flag; allowing prayer in public schools; prohibiting abortions in most cases; and limiting marriage to mixed-sex couples only.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Major events during the American Revolution era","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>March 4, 1634:</strong> Boston’s first tavern is opened by a man named Samuel Cole. It’s unknown whether his first customer was named Norm.</p>\n<p><strong>Sept. 4, 1634:</strong> The Massachusetts General Court bans the drinking of toasts.</p>\n<p><strong>March 3, 1639:</strong> A three-year-old college on the banks of Boston’s Charles River is renamed Harvard, after John Harvard, a minister who left the school half his fortune and his library.</p>\n<p><strong>1664:</strong> Horse racing becomes the first established sport in America with the opening of a track on Long Island in New York.</p>\n<p><strong>1680:</strong> Facing starvation, Maryland settlers are forced to eat oysters from Chesapeake Bay.</p>\n<p><strong>1721:</strong> Boston Dr. Zabdiel Boylston inoculates 243 people during a smallpox epidemic. All but six survive. Other doctors dismiss it as coincidence.</p>\n<p><strong>1741:</strong> America’s first magazine, called <em>American Magazine, </em>is published in Boston.</p>\n<p><strong>1755:</strong> British Army surgeon Richard Schuckburg sets a satirical set of lyrics portraying Americans as country bumpkins to a popular tune of the time, and calls it “Yankee Doodle.”</p>\n<p><strong>1766:</strong> A stagecoach called Flying Machine travels the 90 miles from Camden New Jersey to Jersey City in a record-breaking two days.</p>\n<p><strong>May 4, 1780:</strong> The American Academy of Arts and Sciences is founded in Boston.</p>\n<p><strong>May 30 1783:</strong> The <em>Pennsylvania Evening Post</em> becomes America’s first daily newspaper.</p>\n<p><strong>Jan. 26, 1784:</strong> Benjamin Franklin announces his opposition to the bald eagle as America’s national symbol, asserting that “the turkey is a much more respectable bird.”</p>\n<p><strong>May 17, 1792:</strong> A group of 24 merchants and bankers start a stock exchange in New York City. They do most of their business under a tree outside the building at 68 Wall Street.</p>\n<p><strong>June 26, 1797:</strong> New Jersey inventor Charles Newbold patents a cast-iron plow. American farmers are afraid the iron will poison the soil, and sales flop.</p>\n<p><strong>1800:</strong> Philadelphia cobbler William Young designs shoes specifically for left and right feet.</p>\n"},{"title":"Mini-bios of two notable American Revolutionaries","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>These two gentlemen might not be as well known as Benjamin Franklin or Thomas Jefferson, but they both contributed to events during the American Revolution. Noah Webster (recognize that last name) helped to create the American lexicon, and John Jacob Astor became one of America&#8217;s first millionaires and helped finance the American war efforts.</p>\n<h2>Noah Webster</h2>\n<p>While others were creating governments and political parties, Noah Webster was helping to create something just as vital: the American language. Born in 1758 in Connecticut, Webster graduated from Yale and became a schoolteacher. Webster saw a need for a commonality of language for the new country. He put together a grammar book, a reader, and a spelling primer. The speller became a bestseller for decades and helped standardize spelling and pronunciation in America. Webster was also a successful lecturer and writer on subjects from politics to meteorology and published a pro-Federalist party magazine.</p>\n<p>But his name became synonymous with a different kind of reading material. Webster published his first dictionary in 1806, containing new words such as “caucus,” “belittle,” and “sot.” It was followed by a massive two-volume version in 1828 and a third in 1840 — with 12,000 words and 38,000 definitions that had never appeared in an English-language dictionary before.</p>\n<p>“America must be as independent in literature as she is in politics,” Webster wrote, “as famous for arts as for arms.”</p>\n<h2>John Jacob Astor</h2>\n<p>John Jacob Astor was the founder of America’s first great fortune, and he did it the old-fashioned way: with brains, hard work, and political string-pulling.</p>\n<p>Astor was born in Germany and came to New York at the age of 20. He parlayed a music store business into real estate, and after 1800 got into fur trading and importing goods from China. When U.S. companies were banned from foreign trade in 1807, Astor had a clerk pretend to be a Chinese VIP who wanted to go home for his grandfather’s funeral. The trip was approved, and naturally the ship came back with a fortune in Chinese goods.</p>\n<p>During the War of 1812, Astor lost his trading post in Oregon — the first U.S. post on the Pacific coast – to the British. But after helping to finance the American war effort, Astor got Congress to pass a law banning “foreigners” from the U.S. fur trade. That allowed him to buy out his Canadian partners cheaply and establish a lucrative monopoly in the Pacific Northwest.</p>\n<p>By the time he died in 1848, Astor had amassed a $30 million fortune (about $877 million in 2019 dollars), some of which went to establish the New York Public Library. <em>Astor </em>became synonymous with wealth in America. Oh, the name of that Oregon trading post Astor briefly lost to the British? Astoria, of course.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five 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American History Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency

Article / Updated 08-10-2023

From the beginning, the Trump administration was mired in scandals that have undermined his presidency. The constant wave of scandals has resulted in negative coverage of his presidency, overshadowing his economic and foreign policy successes. Instead of being able to focus on domestic and foreign policy, President Trump has constantly dealt with putting out fires often caused by his own actions. The two biggest scandals were the Russia and the Ukraine scandals. The Russia scandal Almost as soon as Donald Trump had assumed the presidency, the Russia scandal broke out. It involved some of the president’s closest aides, including his national security advisor. During the 2016 presidential election, Russian operatives hacked Hillary Clinton’s server and later also the server for the Democratic National Committee. U.S. intelligence would later find out that the Russian government was actively trying to interfere in the U.S. presidential election by creating dissent among the U.S. public and trying to undermine Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton. In May 2017 Trump fired FBI Director James Comey, who had been leading an investigation into links between the Russian government and Trump associates. Comey later testified that he was fired after he refused to drop the investigation of President Trump’s National Security Advisor Michael Flynn, who had resigned after only 24 days in office after it was discovered that he had lied to Congress about meetings with the Russian Ambassador to the United States. Former FBI Director Robert Mueller was appointed in May of 2017 to investigate whether there was any collusion between the Trump campaign and the Russian government and whether the Trump campaign had attempted to obstruct justice. The findings of the investigation were released in April 2019 and stated that while there was clear interference by the Russian government in the 2016 presidential elections, there was no clear evidence that the Trump campaign had conspired with the Russian government. The report does note that while there was no evidence the Trump campaign coordinated with the Russian government, it clearly did benefit from Russian interference. The findings on obstruction of justice were less clear. Mueller concluded that he could not charge a sitting president with a crime because a sitting president cannot stand trial. Only Congress can charge and then impeach and even remove a president. According to the report: “The investigation does not conclude that the president committed a crime; however, it does also not exonerate him.” In other words Mueller took the easy way out and left it up to Congress to take the next or no steps. The Ukraine scandal After having weathered the Russia scandal, it looked like President Trump’s presidency was safe until the 2020 election. However, in September 2019, the Ukraine scandal broke out. The scandal involves President Trump’s alleged attempts to coerce Ukraine into providing information on his possible democratic challenger Joe Biden and his son Hunter. According to the charges, President Trump threatened to withhold $400 million in military aid from Ukraine, unless it reopened an investigation into Hunter Biden’s activities in Ukraine. An anonymous whistle blower brought this to the attention of Congress and the media, and in September 2019, the House of Representatives began hearings on whether President Trump solicited foreign intervention in the 2020 campaign. This would be an impeachable offense. Full impeachment hearings were started on October 31, 2019. These were open to the public and were nationally televised. On December 18, 2019, the House of Representatives voted 230 to 197 to impeach President Trump for abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. President Trump was the third president to be impeached by the House of Representatives. Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton were the other two. After being impeached by the House of Representatives, the Senate started on January 16, 2020, to debate whether to remove President Trump from office. On February 5, 2020, the Senate acquitted President Trump by a 52 to 48 vote. It is now up to the U.S. electorate to decide whether he deserves a second term.

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American History The Final Events that Led To the American Revolution

Article / Updated 08-04-2023

During the mid-1760s, America and Britain had managed to confine their differences to rhetorical battles and bloodless economic boycotts. But the conflict took a decided turn after the Boston Massacre in 1770 and the Boston Tea Party in 1773. In early September 1774, an extraordinary collection of American colonists gathered in Philadelphia. There were 56 of them, from all the colonies except Georgia (whose inhabitants were facing a war with Creek Indians, needed the support of British troops, and therefore didn’t want to irritate government officials in London). All of the 56 were males. About half of them were lawyers. Some, like John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, were among the wealthiest men in America. Others, like Sam Adams of Massachusetts, were so financially strapped friends had to chip in and buy him a decent set of clothes for the convention. There were well-known figures, such as George Washington, John Adams, and Patrick Henry, and men largely unknown outside their colonies. One (Benjamin Harrison of Virginia) would be the father and great-grandfather of future U.S. presidents. Another (Stephen Crane of New Jersey) would be bayoneted to death by German mercenary soldiers during the Revolutionary War. A third (Edward Rutledge of North Carolina) would be, at the age of 26, the youngest man to sign the Declaration of Independence. These men were delegates to what became known as the First Continental Congress. They had been sent by colonial assemblies to, in the words of the Massachusetts assembly, “a meeting of Committees from the several Colonies on this Continent … to consult upon the present state of the Colonies, and the miseries, to which they are, and must be reduced, by the operation of certain Acts of Parliament respecting America… .” Getting down to business The first order of business was to make it clear to British authorities that they were not immediately planning a revolution. Delegates wrote to General Gage in Boston to assure him they were trying to find “the most peaceable means for restoring American liberty.” After narrowly rejecting a conciliation plan proposed by Joseph Galloway that called for creation of an American parliament that would work with the British version, delegates drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances addressed directly to King George III. This was basically a laundry list of all the complaints America had made since passage of the Stamp Act nine years before. They asked the king to drop the Coercive Acts. Several delegates wrote essays suggesting the colonies deal only with the king and completely ignore Parliament. More ominously, they agreed to a mutual defense pact — if one colony should be subjected to violence by British troops, the others would come to its aid. They also endorsed a series of resolutions from Massachusetts (delivered to the convention via a Paul Revere horseback ride), known as the Suffolk Resolves. These called for completely ignoring the provisions of the Coercive Acts, establishing armed militias in each town, and requiring citizens to “use their utmost diligence to acquaint themselves with the art of war as soon as possible.” A serious boycott Finally, the congress approved a total boycott of British goods, in a united resolution called The Association. This boycott went far beyond previous boycotts. Under it, nothing from British sources — up to and including slaves — would be imported as of Dec. 1, 1774. Furthermore, no American goods would be exported to Britain — although after protests from their delegates, rice from South Carolina and tobacco from Virginia were exempted. The export ban was delayed until the following year so “as not to injure our fellow-subjects in Great Britain, Ireland and the West Indies.” Finally, British goods already in the colonies would not be bought, sold or consumed. “We do for ourselves, and the inhabitants of the several colonies, whom we represent, firmly agree … to abide by the agreements,” the resolution concluded. On Oct. 26, they went home, with the understanding they would reconvene in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, if necessary. It was. 'Let it begin here' It was Britain’s serve in the ping-pong political battle straddling the Atlantic. Hoping to preserve peace, William Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, proposed a sweeping rollback of almost every act that had angered the Americans. But mindful of a still-furious king, the House of Lords resoundingly rejected it. British Prime Minister Lord Frederick North (who served from 1770 to 1782) then offered a half-a-loaf Conciliatory Resolution, which said that if a colony would contribute to its own defense and pay for civil and judicial administrations within its borders, it would be exempt from paying taxes — except those necessary for the regulation of commerce. The proposal, approved by Parliament in February 1775, did not reach the colonies for several months, after the fighting had begun. It was summarily rejected when it got there anyway. Prodded by King George, North also pushed Parliament into declaring Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and authorized more troops to be sent to the colonies. The so-called Restraining Acts limited trade between all of the British Empire and the colonies and prohibited New England fishermen from working in the cod-rich seas off Newfoundland. Parliamentary members sympathetic to the Americans warned that Britain might be biting off more than it could chew. “You cannot furnish armies, or treasure, competent to the mighty purpose of subduing America,” said Edmund Burke. “But whether France and Spain will be tame, inactive spectators of your efforts and distractions is well worthy of the consideration of your lordships.” Burke’s warning was echoed by General Gage, the Massachusetts governor who was also in command of His Majesty’s army in America. “If you think ten thousand men are enough,” he wrote Lord North, “send twenty; if a million (pounds) is thought to be enough, give two. You will save blood and treasure in the end.” Squirreling away supplies Meanwhile, in the colonies, efforts were being made to enforce the economic boycott — and prepare for war. To accomplish the first of these tasks, committees were appointed in every county to oversee adherence to the boycott, as well as discourage colonists from taking government jobs, particularly in Massachusetts. Names of those who were suspected of violations were publicized, and the offenders faced social ostracism, and sometimes worse. While the occasional tarring and feathering did take place, the threat of physical violence was usually implied more than employed. Shunning by one’s neighbors was usually enough. One Massachusetts man who had been appointed a councilor to the governor walked into a church service one Sunday, only to see all his fellow congregants walk out. He thereupon declined the appointment. While enforcing the boycott, the Sons of Liberty group and militia, known as Minute Men because they were to respond quickly to any call to arms, staged surprise raids on British supply depots and made off with arms and ammunition. They took care not to shoot, daring the British troops to fire first. The tactic followed the advice of Sam Adams: “Put your enemy in the wrong and keep him so. It is a wise maxim in politics as well as in war.” Riding with Revere The colonists also kept a constant eye on the movements of British troops. One of their most effective spies was the son of a French immigrant who had established himself as a master silversmith in Boston. Paul Revere also made false teeth and surgical instruments — and was good on a horse. In mid-April 1775, General Gage received orders from London to arrest the colonial dissident leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock and seize any arms collected by the colonists. Gage was also directed to use force, if necessary. So, on the evening of April 18, Gage ordered a force of 700 men to march from Boston to the village of Concord, about 20 miles away, arrest Adams and Hancock if they found them, and destroy a cache of arms suspected to be there. Revere, however, got wind of the plan, and set out to warn the countryside that the British were coming. It was a harrowing trek. After crossing the Charles River at night in a small boat, he outrode British pursuers and made it to the small town of Lexington, about seven miles from Concord. There he warned Adams and Hancock. With two other men, Thomas Dawes and Dr. Samuel Prescott, he then set out for Concord. The trio ran into a mounted British patrol. Prescott escaped by leaping his horse over a stone wall and made it to Concord, where the militia was able to hide most of the guns and ammunition. Revere and Dawes were briefly detained, but were somewhat inexplicably released after the troops took Revere’s horse. (Of the three riders, Revere is the one everyone remembers mainly because of a wildly popular 1861 poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.) The 'shot heard round the world' At the village of Lexington, the British force was confronted by a group of about 75 militia under the command of John Parker. A farmer and veteran of the French and Indian War, Parker initially ignored the British officer’s command that the Americans put down their arms. Instead, according to the later account of a man under his command, Parker replied, “Stand your ground. Don’t fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here.” Outnumbered 10 to 1, Parker was in the process of changing his mind when a shot was fired — by which side is unknown — and a volley of gunfire followed. Eight of the colonists were killed and ten wounded. The British troops then moved on to Concord, where they destroyed several cannons that had been too big to hide. By that time, however, hundreds of militia had arrived, and as the British troops began moving back toward Boston, they fired on the Americans, who returned fire. What had been an orderly withdrawal by the British now became a somewhat disorderly retreat. “We retired for 15 miles under incessant fire,” a British officer recounted, “which like a moving circle surrounded us wherever we went.” Shooting from behind rocks and inside houses, the American militia killed or wounded more than 250 of the king’s soldiers, while suffering about 90 casualties themselves. The battle was immortalized in an 1836 poem written by Ralph Waldo Emerson, called “Concord Hymn:" “By the rude bridge that arched the flood, / Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, / Here once the embattled farmers stood, / And fired the shot heard ’round the world.” Stirring poetics aside, the long war of words between Mother Britain and her American children was over. The war of blood and death had begun.

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Scottish History Scottish History For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 07-21-2023

Scottish history is full of wonderful characters — some good, some not so good — and exciting events, from the bloodthirsty to scientific discovery. This Cheat Sheet gives you the lay of the land, and identifies the leaders and the turning points that made Scotland what it is today.

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Ancient Egyptian History Ancient Egyptians For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 07-19-2023

Ancient Egypt is famous for its history, architecture, religion . . . the list goes on! Here you’ll find a timeline detailing important periods that shaped this fascinating civilization.

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Ancient Egyptian History Ancient Egypt Timeline

Article / Updated 07-19-2023

Here’s an overview of periods of Egyptian history. Some of the dates and dynasties overlap, especially during the Intermediate Periods, because different kings ruled different parts of Egypt at the same time – all holding the title of king. Predynastic Period The Badarian period: 4400–4000 BC Maadian period: 4000–3300 BC The Amratian period: 4000–3500 BC The Gerzean period: 3500–3200 BC The Negada III period: 3200–3050 BC Early Dynastic Period Dynasty 0: 3150–3050 BC Dynasty 1: 3050–2890 BC Dynasty 2: 2890 –2686 BC Old Kingdom Dynasty 3: 2686–2613 BC Dynasty 4: 2613–2500 BC Dynasty 5: 2498–2345 BC Dynasty 6: 2345–2333 BC First Intermediate Period Dynasty 7 and 8: 2180–2160 BC Dynasty 9 and 10: 2160–2040 BC Middle Kingdom Dynasty 11: 2134–1991 BC Dynasty 12: 1991–1782 BC Second Intermediate Period Dynasty 13: 1782 –1650 BC Dynasty 14: Dates unknown. This dynasty is characterised by a few chieftains ruling one town, calling themselves kings. Dynasty 15: 1663–1555 BC Dynasty 16: 1663–1555 BC Dynasty 17: 1663–1570 BC New Kingdom Dynasty 18: 1570–1293 BC Dynasty 19: 1293–1185 BC Dynasty 20: 1185–1070 BC Third Intermediate Period High Priests (Thebes): 1080–945 BC Dynasty 21 (Tanis): 1069–945 BC Dynasty 22 (Tanis): 945–715 BC Dynasty 23 (Leontopolis): 818–715 BC Dynasty 24 (Sais): 727–715 BC Dynasty 25 (Nubians): 747–656 BC Dynasty 26 (Sais): 664–525 BC Late Period Dynasty 27 (Persian): 525–404 BC Dynasty 28: 404–399 BC Dynasty 29: 399–380 BC Dynasty 30: 380–343 BC Dynasty 31: 343–332 BC Graeco-Roman Period Macedonian Kings: 332–305 BC Ptolemaic Period: 305–30 BC

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Ancient Greek History Mythology For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 07-05-2023

Many cultures create a mythology to help explain the workings of the world. Western civilization is most familiar with the gods and goddesses of Greek and Roman mythology, who have comparable powers, but different names. And mythology is created often in response to human history, so a historical timeline can be a good reference to have.

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American History First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 06-21-2023

This Cheat Sheet focuses on 50 key dates in the history of first ladies of the United States. These events mark the unique and continuing evolution of the office of First Lady and the first ladies themselves.

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British History Queen Elizabeth II: 70 Years of Devotion to the UK

Article / Updated 06-20-2023

Prior to her accession to the throne on her 21st birthday, Elizabeth spoke to the nations of the British Commonwealth via radio broadcast, saying, "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong." This commitment to serve the people of the Commonwealth characterized her reign from the beginning to her death in 2022. Queen Elizabeth’s reign started in 1952 when she was just 25 years old. She reigned through decades of enormous social change and development within the United Kingdom and around the world. The reign of Queen Elizabeth II Traditionally, the head of the British Commonwealth takes no official stance on public policy and remains neutral on party politics. Being the traditionalist, Queen Elizabeth kept her views on political issues mostly private. It is considered "bad form" to repeat anything that the Queen says in private and British newspapers had a long-standing policy of not publishing the Queen’s private utterances. As a result, the Queen's public actions and words influenced the culture of her nation in ways that no elected official could. For example, in 2011, Queen Elizabeth made the first trip to the Irish Republic by a British monarch in over a century. The visit, in and of itself, carried significance, but to make sure the point was not missed, Queen Elizabeth arrived wearing an emerald green suit, surrounded by ladies-in-waiting also wearing shades of green. She publicly encouraged both sides of the English-Irish conflict "to bow to the past but not be bound by it." She visited the Garden of Remembrance, the sacred ground for Irish patriots who died battling for independence, where she bowed her head in reverence. She also visited Croke Park, the site of Bloody Sunday in 1920, where 14 Irish civilians died after British forces opened fire on them. Thus, without voicing a political position, Queen Elizabeth II set the stage for improved relations between the peoples and governments of these two Commonwealth nations over which she reigned. In 2013, the Queen publicly signed a Commonwealth Charter that opposes "all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, color, creed, political belief, or other grounds." With the stroke of the pen, the queen made a symbolic pledge for equal rights for all people in the 54 countries around the world that belong to the British Commonwealth. Never in her years as monarch had she done anything like it before. The press speculated that the signing of the Commonwealth Charter signaled the Queen's support of gay rights. "The queen has to remain politically neutral," ABC News royal contributor Victoria Arbiter said. "While we won't hear her personal views on this, the fact that she is endorsing it publicly in front of television cameras, it really does speak volumes." Through the course of her reign, Queen Elizabeth introduced reforms to the monarchy. In 1992, she volunteered to start paying both income and capital gains taxes. She opened her official residencies to the public — including Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle — in order to finance their maintenance. She supported ending the rule of male primogeniture, meaning the eldest child can succeed to the throne, regardless of gender. On October 28, 2011, the 16 Commonwealth countries at the Perth Commonwealth Summit voted unanimously to scrap male primogeniture in the British royal family. Henceforth, the oldest child in the direct line would be heir, regardless of gender. Despite her reputation for being distant and aloof, Queen Elizabeth II brought a personal touch to the British monarchy, introducing more informal engagements and increasing the number of visits to both countries within and outside of the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth was said to be the most well-travelled British monarch in history. As a means of staying connected to the people she served, Elizabeth II also introduced the walkabout, in which she met and greeted large numbers of the public. In 1981, on one of the royal walkabouts, a British subject seeking fame and notoriety fired six blank shots at her. Despite the danger presented by these up close and personal appearances, she continued to do the walkabouts regularly. The Queen’s own service leadership works to encourage others to volunteer and serve their communities. Her Majesty was involved with more than 600 charities and non-profit organizations — she served to bring recognition to their achievements and contributions and to persuade other people to join. The personal side of Queen Elizabeth II It is said that when Elizabeth met Prince Philip, even though she was only 13 years old, she fell in love with him and they began exchanging letters. They were officially engaged on July 9, 1947 and they were married on November 20, 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They had four children, Charles, Anne, Andrew and Edward. During the Queen’s reign she experienced personal tragedies, including the death of her father at 56, the breakdown of her children’s marriages — particularly that of Prince Charles and Princess Diana of Wales — and the tragic death of Princess Diana in 1997. Her mother and sister also passed during her reign, both in 2002.

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Black American History The History of Juneteenth

Article / Updated 06-13-2023

On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed a bill making June 19 an annual federal holiday in the United States. The day has come to be known as "Juneteenth," a mashup of "June" and "nineteenth," and has been celebrated as the end of legal enslavement in the United States. The holiday recognizes June 19, 1865, when Union army soldiers, led by Gen. Gordon Granger, told the enslaved people in Galveston, Texas, that the Civil War was over and they'd been freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Lincoln January 1, 1863. The unconfirmed story is that enslaved people held in that coastal city were the last to learn of the end of the war — and the end of legal enslavement. “Great nations don’t ignore their most painful moments,” President Biden said during the signing ceremony at the White House. “They don’t ignore those moments of the past. They embrace them. Great nations don’t walk away. We come to terms with the mistakes we made. And in remembering those moments, we begin to heal and grow stronger.” Juneteenth is a second independence holiday The holiday's official name is Juneteenth National Independence Day, and it's the second annual celebration of independence in the United States, the first being July 4. That observance marks the day the 13 English colonies in North America ratified the Declaration of Independence, announcing their separation from English rule. Juneteenth National Independence Day commemorates when independence extended to everyone in the United States and freed nearly 4 million people from enslavement. With Biden's signature on the bill in 2021, Juneteenth became the 12th federal holiday — meaning all nonessential federal employees are given a paid holiday and financial markets are closed. It joins New Year’s Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas as fixed-date holidays, or holidays that are celebrated on either the same calendar date or the closest weekday if the date falls on Saturday or Sunday. The United States celebrated the first federal Juneteenth holiday on Friday, June 18, 2021, because June 19 fell on a Saturday that year. Since 2021, 49 states formally observe or celebrate the day in some way; eight states include it as a paid holiday for nonessential state employees. Recent events raised awareness of Juneteenth Although many Americans were only vaguely familiar with Juneteenth before it became a federal holiday, it's been celebrated for more than 150 years. But the day drew widespread public attention in 2020. Civil rights protests following the murder of George Floyd by police in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on May 25, 2020, raised awareness of Juneteenth. Also in 2020, public outcry over a campaign event in Tulsa, Oklahoma scheduled for June 19 by then-President Donald Trump, captured national media attention. Trump’s opponents argued that holding the event on Juneteenth in that city, where a massacre of Black citizens happened in 1921, would be disrespectful. Once again, the uproar and media attention raised awareness of Juneteenth among many more Americans. Trump rescheduled his campaign event. Major U.S. companies including Nike, Twitter, Target, and John Wiley & Sons (home of For Dummies) offered Juneteenth as a holiday for employees that year. The long wait for freedom and citizenship Although Juneteenth has traditionally celebrated the end of enslavement of Black people in the United States, slavery did not formally come to an end nationwide until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on December 18, 1865. Before that amendment abolished slavery, the Emancipation Proclamation had freed only enslaved people in the states that seceded from the country at the beginning of the Civil War. The legal status of people enslaved in states that didn’t secede but allowed enslavement — Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware — was unclear until the Thirteenth Amendment passed. Enslavement was not fully banned in the United States until 1866 when treaties with Native American tribes formally ended enslavement in territories controlled by those tribes. Finally, formerly enslaved people did not legally become US citizens with full protection under the law until ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment on July 28, 1868. There's still debate over the date when legal enslavement of Black people in the United States actually ended. But, whatever the actual date, Juneteenth now marks the end of that painful period of U.S. history.

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American History American Revolution For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 06-09-2023

One of the remarkable aspects of the American Revolution is the staying power of the basic structure of government the founding fathers laid down. That doesn’t mean, however, that the structure was either simple or perfect. To help you understand a bit more about the complexities — and flaws — in the governmental building blocks they used, here are “backgrounders” on three of those blocks: the Electoral College, reapportionment (gerrymandering), and amending the U.S. Constitution. Just for fun, check out the mini-biographies on two interesting Americans from the period, Noah Webster and John Jacob Astor, and enjoy some non-government trivia you can use to amuse your admirers and annoy your enemies.

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