{"appState":{"pageLoadApiCallsStatus":true},"categoryState":{"relatedCategories":{"headers":{"timestamp":"2022-05-17T12:31:16+00:00"},"categoryId":33672,"data":{"title":"American","slug":"american","image":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"parentCategory":{"categoryId":33670,"title":"History","slug":"history","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"}},"childCategories":[],"description":"Indigenous civilizations, Columbus, the colonies, the Constitution, the Cold War — it's all here.","relatedArticles":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles?category=33672&offset=0&size=5"}},"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"relatedCategoriesLoadedStatus":"success"},"listState":{"list":{"count":10,"total":179,"items":[{"headers":{"creationTime":"2018-08-02T03:47:45+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-05-04T19:02:52+00:00","timestamp":"2022-05-05T00:01:07+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"Roe v. Wade and other Supreme Court decisions on abortion","strippedTitle":"roe v. wade and other supreme court decisions on abortion","slug":"roe-v-wade-1973","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about several U.S. Supreme Court decisions concerning women's reproductive rights that came after the historical Roe v. Wade ruling.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"This case has become the litmus test for confirmation to the U.S. Supreme Court bench. No judge who comes out openly against <em>Roe v. Wade</em> is likely to be confirmed.\r\n\r\nIn <em>Roe</em>, the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that women have the right to an abortion, at least during the first trimester of pregnancy. The court characterized abortion as a “fundamental” constitutional right, which means that any law aiming to restrict it is subject to the standard of <em>strict scrutiny</em>.\r\n\r\nIn <em>Planned Parenthood v. Casey</em> (1982), the high court modified <em>Roe</em> by giving the state the right to regulate an abortion, even in the first trimester, as long as that regulation doesn’t pose an “undue burden” on the woman’s fundamental right to an abortion. One such “undue burden” identified in Casey was any requirement for the woman to notify her husband.\r\n\r\nA Texas law that placed certain restrictions on abortion clinics in the state was struck down by the Supreme Court, in a 5–3 vote, as placing an “undue burden” on abortion rights in <i>Whole Woman’s </i><em>Health v. Hellerstedt</em><span style=\"color: #000000; font-family: Calibri;\"> (2016). </span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #000000; font-family: Calibri;\">In </span><i>Stormans Inc. v. Wiesman</i> (2016), a five-justice majority on the court refused to hear a challenge to a Washington state law making it illegal for pharmacists to refuse to dispense contraceptive drugs. In a dissent, Justice Samuel Alito, joined by Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Clarence Thomas, wrote: “This case is an ominous sign … If this is a sign of how religious liberty claims will be treated in the years ahead, those who value religious freedom have cause for great concern.”\r\n\r\n<em>Roe v. Wade</em> continues to be as controversial as it is important.","description":"This case has become the litmus test for confirmation to the U.S. Supreme Court bench. No judge who comes out openly against <em>Roe v. Wade</em> is likely to be confirmed.\r\n\r\nIn <em>Roe</em>, the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that women have the right to an abortion, at least during the first trimester of pregnancy. The court characterized abortion as a “fundamental” constitutional right, which means that any law aiming to restrict it is subject to the standard of <em>strict scrutiny</em>.\r\n\r\nIn <em>Planned Parenthood v. Casey</em> (1982), the high court modified <em>Roe</em> by giving the state the right to regulate an abortion, even in the first trimester, as long as that regulation doesn’t pose an “undue burden” on the woman’s fundamental right to an abortion. One such “undue burden” identified in Casey was any requirement for the woman to notify her husband.\r\n\r\nA Texas law that placed certain restrictions on abortion clinics in the state was struck down by the Supreme Court, in a 5–3 vote, as placing an “undue burden” on abortion rights in <i>Whole Woman’s </i><em>Health v. Hellerstedt</em><span style=\"color: #000000; font-family: Calibri;\"> (2016). </span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #000000; font-family: Calibri;\">In </span><i>Stormans Inc. v. Wiesman</i> (2016), a five-justice majority on the court refused to hear a challenge to a Washington state law making it illegal for pharmacists to refuse to dispense contraceptive drugs. In a dissent, Justice Samuel Alito, joined by Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Clarence Thomas, wrote: “This case is an ominous sign … If this is a sign of how religious liberty claims will be treated in the years ahead, those who value religious freedom have cause for great concern.”\r\n\r\n<em>Roe v. Wade</em> continues to be as controversial as it is important.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":10206,"name":"Michael Arnheim","slug":"michael-arnheim","description":"As a lawyer who consults with various US firms on constitutional issues and as author of a text on British constitutional law, Michael Arnheim is uniquely qualified to present an unbiased view of the US Constitution, what it says, what it means, and how it's been interpreted in a variety of situations.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10206"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34474,"title":"American Government","slug":"american-government","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34474"}},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":256325,"title":"When and Why the U.S. Constitution Was Created","slug":"when-and-why-the-u-s-constitution-was-created","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/256325"}},{"articleId":256319,"title":"How the U.S. Constitution Is Interpreted","slug":"how-the-u-s-constitution-is-interpreted","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/256319"}},{"articleId":254942,"title":"Riley v. California (2014)","slug":"riley-v-california-2014","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/254942"}},{"articleId":254939,"title":"Glossip v. Gross (2015)","slug":"glossip-v-gross-2015","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/254939"}},{"articleId":254936,"title":"Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)","slug":"obergefell-v-hodges-2015","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/254936"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282645,"slug":"u-s-constitution-for-dummies-2nd-edition","isbn":"9781119387299","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119387299-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/u.s.-constitution-for-dummies-2nd-edition-cover-9781119387299-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"U.S. Constitution For Dummies, 2nd Edition","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"\n <p>As a lawyer who consults with various U.S. firms on constitutional issues and as author of a text on British constitutional law, <b data-author-id=\"10206\">Dr. Michael Arnheim</b> is uniquely qualified to present an unbiased view of the U.S. Constitution, what it says, what it means, and how it's been interpreted in a variety of situations. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":10206,"name":"Michael Arnheim","slug":"michael-arnheim","description":"As a lawyer who consults with various US firms on constitutional issues and as author of a text on British constitutional law, Michael Arnheim is uniquely qualified to present an unbiased view of the US Constitution, what it says, what it means, and how it's been interpreted in a variety of situations.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10206"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119387299&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-627313c36046a\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119387299&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-627313c360b02\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Six months","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-05-04T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":254930},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T15:02:12+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-05-04T17:44:11+00:00","timestamp":"2022-05-04T18:01:05+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"Roe v. Wade: How Abortion Became Legal in the United States","strippedTitle":"roe v. wade: how abortion became legal in the united states","slug":"roe-v-wade-how-abortion-became-legal-in-the-united-states","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn the history behind the U.S. Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, which guarantees a woman's right to an abortion.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"<p class=\"Women's health month (May)\"><em>Roe v</em><em>ersus</em><em> Wade</em><em>, </em>better known as<em> Roe v. Wade,</em> is the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision that legalized abortion within the first two months of pregnancy. Up until then, individual state laws regulated abortions, thereby forcing women to illegal clinics or untrained practitioners. The lack of proper medical supervision in these situations was dangerous for the women.</p>\r\nThe roots of this case lie in Dallas, Texas, in 1969. At the time, obtaining or attempting an abortion was illegal in Texas, except in cases where the woman could die. Twenty-one-year-old Norma McCorvey was single and pregnant. Thinking that abortions were legal in cases of rape and incest, she tried to get an abortion by falsely claiming she was raped. But because there was no police report to prove it, she sought the alternative, an illegal abortion. Once again, her efforts failed — police had shut down the illegal clinic. Norma's next step was to find a lawyer to sue for the right to get an abortion.\r\n\r\nTwo young attorneys named Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee, dedicated to women's advocacy, took Norma's case and dubbed their plaintiff \"Jane Roe\" to protect her identity. On March 3, 1970, Coffee filed a complaint, <em>Roe </em>v.<em> Wade</em> (later amended to a class-action suit), at the Dallas federal district courthouse, suing the State of Texas over the constitutionality over its abortion laws. Henry Wade was the defending district attorney.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Roe won the case when the district court decided that the Texas laws were vague and infringed on the Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. The Ninth Amendment protects citizens' rights not listed in other parts of the Constitution, including the right to privacy. Norma's attorneys argued that this extended to a woman's right to decide to bear children or not. The Fourteenth Amendment ensures that no state can abridge a citizen's fundamental rights without due process.</p>\r\nThe case was appealed and landed in the U.S. Supreme Court. On January 22, 1973, the Court handed down its decision in favor of Roe, declaring:\r\n<blockquote>[The] right to privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the district court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.\"<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><sup>[</sup></span></blockquote>\r\nThe Supreme Court ruling didn't come in time for Norma McCorvey to have an abortion. She delivered a child even before the district court ruled in her favor in 1970; that child was immediately adopted.\r\n\r\n<em>Roe v. Wade </em>remains as polarizing as ever. Right-to-privacy proponents, anti-abortionists, religious groups, and women's rights advocates are just some of the organizations involved in this heated socio-political issue.","description":"<p class=\"Women's health month (May)\"><em>Roe v</em><em>ersus</em><em> Wade</em><em>, </em>better known as<em> Roe v. Wade,</em> is the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision that legalized abortion within the first two months of pregnancy. Up until then, individual state laws regulated abortions, thereby forcing women to illegal clinics or untrained practitioners. The lack of proper medical supervision in these situations was dangerous for the women.</p>\r\nThe roots of this case lie in Dallas, Texas, in 1969. At the time, obtaining or attempting an abortion was illegal in Texas, except in cases where the woman could die. Twenty-one-year-old Norma McCorvey was single and pregnant. Thinking that abortions were legal in cases of rape and incest, she tried to get an abortion by falsely claiming she was raped. But because there was no police report to prove it, she sought the alternative, an illegal abortion. Once again, her efforts failed — police had shut down the illegal clinic. Norma's next step was to find a lawyer to sue for the right to get an abortion.\r\n\r\nTwo young attorneys named Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee, dedicated to women's advocacy, took Norma's case and dubbed their plaintiff \"Jane Roe\" to protect her identity. On March 3, 1970, Coffee filed a complaint, <em>Roe </em>v.<em> Wade</em> (later amended to a class-action suit), at the Dallas federal district courthouse, suing the State of Texas over the constitutionality over its abortion laws. Henry Wade was the defending district attorney.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Roe won the case when the district court decided that the Texas laws were vague and infringed on the Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. The Ninth Amendment protects citizens' rights not listed in other parts of the Constitution, including the right to privacy. Norma's attorneys argued that this extended to a woman's right to decide to bear children or not. The Fourteenth Amendment ensures that no state can abridge a citizen's fundamental rights without due process.</p>\r\nThe case was appealed and landed in the U.S. Supreme Court. On January 22, 1973, the Court handed down its decision in favor of Roe, declaring:\r\n<blockquote>[The] right to privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the district court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.\"<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><sup>[</sup></span></blockquote>\r\nThe Supreme Court ruling didn't come in time for Norma McCorvey to have an abortion. She delivered a child even before the district court ruled in her favor in 1970; that child was immediately adopted.\r\n\r\n<em>Roe v. Wade </em>remains as polarizing as ever. Right-to-privacy proponents, anti-abortionists, religious groups, and women's rights advocates are just some of the organizations involved in this heated socio-political issue.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9312,"name":"Patricia Yuu Pan","slug":"patricia-yuu-pan","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9312"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6272bf61cec8c\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6272bf61cf3ee\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Six months","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-05-04T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":166838},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T21:21:43+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-05-04T16:33:34+00:00","timestamp":"2022-05-04T18:01:05+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"A Brief History of Father's Day","strippedTitle":"a brief history of father's day","slug":"a-brief-history-of-fathers-day","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Let's hear it for the dads! Learn all about how this holiday on the third Sunday in June was conceived and founded.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Father's Day, celebrated in the United States on the third Sunday of June, got a jump start from <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-history-of-mothers-day.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">the formation of Mother's Day</a>. Credit for beginning Father's Day celebrations is given to Sonora Smart Dodd from Spokane, Washington.\r\n\r\nAt the turn of the century, Mother's Day observances were growing across the United States. The federal government had yet to recognize the holiday, but many states had adopted the third Sunday in May as a special celebration day honoring mothers. It was during a Mother's Day church service on June 20, 1909, that Sonora Smart Dodd was struck with the idea of creating a special holiday to honor fathers, too.\r\n\r\nWhen Sonora was 16, her mother died while giving birth to her sixth child, the last of five sons. Back then, like today, single parenthood was no easy task. By Sonoma's account, though, Mr. Smart did a wonderful job. Because of this love and esteem, Sonoma Smart Dodd believed that her father deserved a special time of honor just like that given to mothers on Mother's Day.\r\n\r\nIn 1909, Sonoma Smart Dodd approached the Spokane YMCA and the Spokane Ministerial Alliance and suggested that her father's birthday — June 5 — become a celebration day for Father's Day. Because they wanted more time to prepare, the Ministerial Alliance chose June 19 instead.\r\n\r\nThe first Father's Day was thus observed in the State of Washington on June 19, 1910. The idea of officially celebrating fatherhood spread quickly across the United States, as more and more states adopted the holiday. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge recognized Father's Day as the third Sunday in June of that year and encouraged states to do the same. Congress officially recognized Father's Day in 1956 with the passage of a joint resolution.\r\n\r\nTen years later, in 1966, President Lyndon Johnson issued a proclamation calling for the third Sunday in June to be recognized as Father's Day. In 1972, President Richard Nixon permanently established the observance of the third Sunday in June as Father's Day in the United States.\r\n\r\nSonora Smart Dodd lived to see her idea come to fruition. She died in 1978 at the ripe old age of 96.","description":"Father's Day, celebrated in the United States on the third Sunday of June, got a jump start from <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-history-of-mothers-day.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">the formation of Mother's Day</a>. Credit for beginning Father's Day celebrations is given to Sonora Smart Dodd from Spokane, Washington.\r\n\r\nAt the turn of the century, Mother's Day observances were growing across the United States. The federal government had yet to recognize the holiday, but many states had adopted the third Sunday in May as a special celebration day honoring mothers. It was during a Mother's Day church service on June 20, 1909, that Sonora Smart Dodd was struck with the idea of creating a special holiday to honor fathers, too.\r\n\r\nWhen Sonora was 16, her mother died while giving birth to her sixth child, the last of five sons. Back then, like today, single parenthood was no easy task. By Sonoma's account, though, Mr. Smart did a wonderful job. Because of this love and esteem, Sonoma Smart Dodd believed that her father deserved a special time of honor just like that given to mothers on Mother's Day.\r\n\r\nIn 1909, Sonoma Smart Dodd approached the Spokane YMCA and the Spokane Ministerial Alliance and suggested that her father's birthday — June 5 — become a celebration day for Father's Day. Because they wanted more time to prepare, the Ministerial Alliance chose June 19 instead.\r\n\r\nThe first Father's Day was thus observed in the State of Washington on June 19, 1910. The idea of officially celebrating fatherhood spread quickly across the United States, as more and more states adopted the holiday. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge recognized Father's Day as the third Sunday in June of that year and encouraged states to do the same. Congress officially recognized Father's Day in 1956 with the passage of a joint resolution.\r\n\r\nTen years later, in 1966, President Lyndon Johnson issued a proclamation calling for the third Sunday in June to be recognized as Father's Day. In 1972, President Richard Nixon permanently established the observance of the third Sunday in June as Father's Day in the United States.\r\n\r\nSonora Smart Dodd lived to see her idea come to fruition. She died in 1978 at the ripe old age of 96.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9772,"name":"Andrew Hollandbeck","slug":"andrew-hollandbeck","description":"","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9772"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6272bf615fcec\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6272bf6160446\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-05-04T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":192457},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T20:46:36+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-03-09T21:59:47+00:00","timestamp":"2022-03-10T00:01:06+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"Women's Suffrage: Fighting for the Right to Vote","strippedTitle":"women's suffrage: fighting for the right to vote","slug":"womens-suffrage-fighting-for-the-right-to-vote","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"After a long and hard-fought struggle, women finally earned the right to vote. Find out how the suffrage movement won their fight.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Women's suffrage was a controversial subject as women's roles developed in society. By the time the twentieth century arrived, American feminists had been seeking the right to vote for more than 50 years. The suffrage movement was fanned even hotter in 1869, when African American males were given the right to vote through the Sixteenth Amendment, while women of all races were still excluded.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_291315\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"15924\"]<img class=\"wp-image-291315 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/library-of-congress-IEj4pcYrsHA-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"Women suffragettes\" width=\"15924\" height=\"10494\" /> 14-yr. old striker, Fola La Follette, and Rose Livingston. Photo by Library of Congress on Unsplash.[/caption]\r\n\r\nOne place where women were increasingly included was in the workplace. As the country shifted away from a rural, agrarian society to an industrial, urban one, more and more women had jobs — eight million by 1910. Moreover, they were getting better jobs. In 1870, 60 percent of working women were in domestic service.\r\n\r\nBy 1920, it was only 20 percent, and women made up 13 percent of the professional ranks. Women were getting out of the house for more than just jobs, too. In 1892, membership in women’s clubs was about 100,000. By 1917, it was more than one million. And women’s increasing independence was reflected in the fact that the divorce rate rose from 1 in every 21 marriages in 1880 to 1 in 9 by 1916.\r\n\r\nBecause women had always had nontraditional roles in the West, it wasn’t surprising that Western states and territories were the first to give females the right to vote: Wyoming in 1869, Utah in 1870, Washington in 1883, Colorado in 1893, and Idaho in 1896. By 1914, all the Western states except New Mexico had extended the voting franchise to women.\r\n\r\nBy 1917, the suffrage movement was building momentum. In July of that year, a score of suffragists tried to storm the White House. They were arrested and taken to the county workhouse. President Woodrow Wilson was not amused, but sympathetic, and pardoned them. The next year, a constitutional amendment — the Nineteenth — was submitted to the states. When ratified in 1920, it gave women the right to vote in every state.\r\n\r\nDespite the significance of the Nineteenth Amendment, many leaders of the women’s movement recognized that the vote alone wouldn’t give women equal standing with men when it came to educational, economic, or legal rights.\r\n\r\n“Men are saying, perhaps, ‘thank God this everlasting women’s fight is over,’” said feminist leader Crystal Eastman after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified. “But women, if I know them, are saying, ‘now at last we can begin.’”","description":"Women's suffrage was a controversial subject as women's roles developed in society. By the time the twentieth century arrived, American feminists had been seeking the right to vote for more than 50 years. The suffrage movement was fanned even hotter in 1869, when African American males were given the right to vote through the Sixteenth Amendment, while women of all races were still excluded.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_291315\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"15924\"]<img class=\"wp-image-291315 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/library-of-congress-IEj4pcYrsHA-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"Women suffragettes\" width=\"15924\" height=\"10494\" /> 14-yr. old striker, Fola La Follette, and Rose Livingston. Photo by Library of Congress on Unsplash.[/caption]\r\n\r\nOne place where women were increasingly included was in the workplace. As the country shifted away from a rural, agrarian society to an industrial, urban one, more and more women had jobs — eight million by 1910. Moreover, they were getting better jobs. In 1870, 60 percent of working women were in domestic service.\r\n\r\nBy 1920, it was only 20 percent, and women made up 13 percent of the professional ranks. Women were getting out of the house for more than just jobs, too. In 1892, membership in women’s clubs was about 100,000. By 1917, it was more than one million. And women’s increasing independence was reflected in the fact that the divorce rate rose from 1 in every 21 marriages in 1880 to 1 in 9 by 1916.\r\n\r\nBecause women had always had nontraditional roles in the West, it wasn’t surprising that Western states and territories were the first to give females the right to vote: Wyoming in 1869, Utah in 1870, Washington in 1883, Colorado in 1893, and Idaho in 1896. By 1914, all the Western states except New Mexico had extended the voting franchise to women.\r\n\r\nBy 1917, the suffrage movement was building momentum. In July of that year, a score of suffragists tried to storm the White House. They were arrested and taken to the county workhouse. President Woodrow Wilson was not amused, but sympathetic, and pardoned them. The next year, a constitutional amendment — the Nineteenth — was submitted to the states. When ratified in 1920, it gave women the right to vote in every state.\r\n\r\nDespite the significance of the Nineteenth Amendment, many leaders of the women’s movement recognized that the vote alone wouldn’t give women equal standing with men when it came to educational, economic, or legal rights.\r\n\r\n“Men are saying, perhaps, ‘thank God this everlasting women’s fight is over,’” said feminist leader Crystal Eastman after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified. “But women, if I know them, are saying, ‘now at last we can begin.’”","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[{"title":"Wonder Women","slug":"wonder-women","collectionId":291389}],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62293fc28cad1\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62293fc28d637\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-03-07T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":188952},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2021-10-08T14:46:05+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-03-07T17:31:31+00:00","timestamp":"2022-03-07T18:01:10+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"first ladies for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"These events in the history of American first ladies shaped the evolving office of First Lady and the women themselves.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"This cheat sheet focuses on 50 key dates in the history of first ladies of the United States. These events mark the unique and continuing evolution of the office of First Lady and the first ladies themselves.","description":"This cheat sheet focuses on 50 key dates in the history of first ladies of the United States. These events mark the unique and continuing evolution of the office of First Lady and the first ladies themselves.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9725,"name":"Marcus A. Stadelmann","slug":"marcus-stadelmann","description":"Marcus A. Stadelmann, PhD, is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9725"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}},{"articleId":269885,"title":"The 10 Best Presidents","slug":"the-10-best-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269885"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":288806,"slug":"first-ladies-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119822196","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/111982219X-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/111982219X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/first-ladies-for-dummies-cover-9781119822196-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"First Ladies For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"\n <p><b data-author-id=\"9725\">Marcus A. Stadelmann</b>, PhD, is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9725,"name":"Marcus A. Stadelmann","slug":"marcus-stadelmann","description":"Marcus A. Stadelmann, PhD, is a professor of political science and chair of the Department of Political Science and History at the University of Texas at Tyler. Along with teaching at universities in California, Utah, and Texas, Dr. Stadelmann has published and given presentations in the fields of American politics and international relations.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9725"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119822196&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-62264866490f6\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119822196&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6226486649a3d\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Events during the 1700s and 1800s","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>June 3, 1781</strong>: Martha Jefferson dies. She is the first First Lady to die before her husband becomes president.</p>\n<p><strong>April 30, 1789</strong>: Martha Washington becomes the first First Lady of the United States. People refer to her as Lady Washington.</p>\n<p><strong>November 1800</strong>: Abigail Adams moves into the new president’s house in Washington, D.C., which is later called the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>August 24, 1814</strong>: The British burn down the White House, after First Lady Dolley Madison was able to save many U.S. historical treasures.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1817</strong>: Elizabeth Monroe becomes the only wife of a president whose father fought for the British during the Revolutionary War.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1825</strong>: John Quincy Adams becomes president, making his mother, Abigail Adams, the first First Lady to be married to a president and to be the mother of a president.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1825</strong>: Louisa Adams becomes the first wife of a president to be born in a foreign country. She was born in Great Britain to an American father.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1837</strong>: Martin Van Buren becomes president of the United States. His wife, Hannah, who had passed in 1819, is the only First Lady married to her first cousin, good old Martin.</p>\n<p><strong>September 10, 1842</strong>: Letitia Tyler becomes the first wife of a president to die in the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>June 26, 1844</strong>: Julia Tyler becomes the first woman to marry a sitting president. She is also the first wife of a sitting president to be photographed.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1845</strong>: Anna Harrison becomes the first and only First Lady to be a wife to a president and the grandmother of a president.</p>\n<p><strong>1849</strong>: President Zachary Taylor coins the term <em>First Lady</em> in a eulogy given for Dolley Madison at her state funeral.</p>\n<p><strong>July 9, 1850</strong>: Abigail Fillmore becomes the first wife of a president to work and have a salary. She was a school teacher. She also establishes the first library in the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1857</strong>: Harriet Lane becomes the first niece of a president to become First Lady. Her uncle President James Buchanan had been a bachelor all his life.</p>\n<p><strong>April 14, 1865</strong>: Mary Todd Lincoln becomes the first First Lady whose husband, Abraham Lincoln, is assassinated.</p>\n<p><strong>March 5, 1877</strong>: Lucy Hayes becomes the first wife of a president to have a college degree.</p>\n<p><strong>1886</strong>: Martha Washington becomes the first and only woman to be featured on the one dollar bill.</p>\n<p><strong>June 2, 1886</strong>: Frances Cleveland marries President Grover Cleveland who is 27 years her senior. She is the first wife of a president to get married in the White House, to give birth in the White House, and to remarry after her husband dies.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1889</strong>: Caroline Harrison becomes First Lady and introduces the tradition of having a Christmas tree in the White House.</p>\n<p><strong>October 3, 1891</strong>: Frances Cleveland gives birth to a daughter and becomes the only First Lady to have a candy bar named in the honor of daughter Ruth (Baby Ruth).</p>\n<p><strong>1890s</strong>: Julia Grant becomes the first wife of a president to write her memoirs. They are finally published in 1975.</p>\n"},{"title":"Events during the 1900s","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>March 4, 1909</strong>: Helen Taft becomes the first wife of a president to own and drive a car.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1913</strong>: Ellen Wilson is the only professional artist to become a First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>1914</strong>: Helen Taft becomes the first former First Lady to write and publish her memoirs, <em>Recollections of Full Years.</em></p>\n<p><strong>1919</strong>: Edith Wilson is the only First Lady to run the White House during her husband’s illness. She was also a direct descendant of Pocahontas and is the first wife of a president to receive Secret Service protection.</p>\n<p><strong>November 2, 1920</strong>: Florence Harding is the first wife of a president to be able to vote for her husband.</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1929</strong>: Lou Hoover becomes the first wife of a president to have a degree in geology from Stanford University and to be able to speak fluent Chinese.</p>\n<p><strong>January 5, 1933</strong>: Grace Coolidge becomes the first former First Lady to receive an honorary degree from an American university (University of Vermont).</p>\n<p><strong>March 4, 1933</strong>: Eleanor Roosevelt becomes the first First Lady to hold press conferences, write weekly and monthly newspaper columns, and host a radio show.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1941</strong>: Eleanor Roosevelt becomes the first and only wife of a president to serve for more than eight years. She ended up being First Lady for 12 years.</p>\n<p><strong>1945:</strong> Bess Truman becomes First Lady of the United States. She held one press conference, hated it, and never had another one.</p>\n<p><strong>1951</strong>: Jaqueline Kennedy interviews her future husband and future president, John F. Kennedy. They got married in 1953.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1953</strong>: Mamie Eisenhower becomes First Lady of the United States. Besides loving the color pink, she is the first wife of a president to not only appear on television but to also actually be in a presidential campaign ad.</p>\n<p><strong>1962</strong>: Jaqueline Kennedy becomes the only First Lady to win an Emmy award for her television special on the renovated White House.</p>\n<p><strong>1963</strong>: Lady Bird Johnson becomes the first wife of a president who already is a millionaire before becoming First Lady. She owned a media empire in the Austin, Texas, area.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1969</strong>: Pat Nixon becomes the first wife of a president with a graduate degree, and she also was the first to wear pants in public as First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1977</strong>: Rosalynn Carter becomes First Lady. She establishes her own workspace in the East Wing of the White House, which today is called the Office of the First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1981</strong>: Nancy Reagan becomes the first actress to become First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 1989</strong>: Barbara Bush becomes the only First Lady to write a bestseller from the point of her dog. It is called <em>Millie’s Book as dictated to Barbara Bush.</em></p>\n"},{"title":"Events during the 2000s","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>November 2000</strong>: Hillary Clinton becomes the first former First Lady to be elected to public office when she is elected U.S. Senator from the State of New York.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2001</strong>: Laura Bush becomes the only First Lady who had twins.</p>\n<p><strong>November 17, 2001</strong>: Laura Bush becomes the first wife of a president to substitute for her husband in the weekly presidential radio address.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2001</strong>: Barbara Bush becomes the second First Lady whose husband and son were presidents of the United States.</p>\n<p><strong>January 2009</strong>: Hillary Clinton becomes the first former First Lady to become Secretary of State. She held the position until 2013.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2009</strong>: Michelle Obama becomes the first African American First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>2016</strong>: Hillary Clinton becomes the first wife of a president to be nominated by a major political party to be its presidential candidate. She loses a close election to Republican Donald Trump.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2017</strong>: Melania Trump becomes the second foreign-born First Lady. She was born in Slovenia, back then a part of the former Yugoslavia.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2017</strong>: Melania Trump becomes the first naturalized citizen to become First Lady.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2021</strong>: Jill Biden becomes the first wife of a president to have a doctorate.</p>\n<p><strong>January 20, 2021</strong>: Jill Biden becomes the oldest First Lady to date at the age of 69.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-10-08T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":288783},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T22:56:03+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-03-07T17:14:39+00:00","timestamp":"2022-03-07T18:01:10+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"Facing Racism and Sexism: Black Women in America","strippedTitle":"facing racism and sexism: black women in america","slug":"facing-racism-and-sexism-black-women-in-america","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Black women in America face the dual struggles of racism and sexism. Learn about the organizations they started to aid in their fight for equality.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, black women were in a difficult position. Between the civil rights and feminist movements, where did they fit in? They had been the backbone of the civil rights movement, but their contributions were deemphasized as black men — often emasculated by white society — felt compelled to adopt patriarchal roles.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_291293\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"860\"]<img class=\"wp-image-291293 size-large\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/unseen-histories-U2F-bYmuEqU-unsplash-860x586.jpg\" alt=\"Civil rights Black women protesting\" width=\"860\" height=\"586\" /> Photo by Unseen Histories on Unsplash[/caption]\r\n\r\nWhen black women flocked to the feminist movement, white women discriminated against them and devoted little attention to class issues that seriously affected black women, who tended to also be poor.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Historically, black women have chosen race over gender concerns, a choice that was especially poignant during Reconstruction when African American female leaders, such as Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, supported the Fifteenth Amendment giving black men the right to vote over the objections of white women suffragists.</p>\r\nBlack women have a long feminist tradition dating back to 19th-century activists such as Maria W. Stewart and Sojourner Truth as well as organizations like the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) and the National Council of Negro Women, founded in 1896 and 1935, respectively. Events of the 1960s and 1970s, not to mention black men's changing attitudes regarding the role of black women, focused awareness around new concerns such as race, gender, and class, and several organizations attempted to address these issues:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>The ANC (Aid to Needy Children) Mothers Anonymous of Watts and the National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO): </b>Johnnie Tillmon was an early pioneer of addressing the concerns of poor black women. A welfare mother living in Los Angeles's Nickerson Projects, Tillmon helped found ANC (Aid to Needy Children) Mothers Anonymous of Watts in 1963. She was later tapped to lead the National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO), founded in 1966. Through these organizations, Tillmon addressed such issues as equal pay for women, child care, and voter registration.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Black Women's Liberation Committee (BWLC): </b>Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) member Francis Beal was one of the founders of the Black Women's Liberation Committee (BWLC) in 1968. In 1969, Beal helped clarify the struggles of black women in the influential essay \"Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female\" that also appeared in the landmark 1970 anthology <i>The Black Woman, </i>which ushered in a new wave of black female writers. Beal identified capitalism as a key factor in the chasm between black men and women. During the early 1970s, the BWLC evolved into the Third World Women's Alliance.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>National Organization for Women (NOW): </b>Reverend Dr. Anna Pauline (Pauli) Murray is a cofounder of the nation's most prominent feminist organization, the National Organization for Women (NOW), founded in 1966.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>The National Black Feminist Organization: </b>While many black women remain active in mainstream feminist organizations only, other black women have created organizations aimed at addressing black women's unique concerns more effectively. The National Black Feminist Organization launched in 1973 with the specific goal of including black women of all ages, classes, and sexual orientation. Although it and similar organizations didn't outlive the 1970s, the legacy of black feminism lives on.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nIn 1983, Alice Walker coined the term <i>womanism, </i>a feminist ideology that addresses the black woman's unique history of racial and gender oppression. Women such as Angela Davis; law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw; academics Patricia Hill Collins, Beverly Guy Sheftall, and Bell Hooks; and historians Darlene Clark Hine, Paula Giddings, and Deborah Gray White have greatly expanded the context in which black women and their history and activism are discussed by underscoring black women's issues related to race, gender, and class.","description":"From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, black women were in a difficult position. Between the civil rights and feminist movements, where did they fit in? They had been the backbone of the civil rights movement, but their contributions were deemphasized as black men — often emasculated by white society — felt compelled to adopt patriarchal roles.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_291293\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"860\"]<img class=\"wp-image-291293 size-large\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/unseen-histories-U2F-bYmuEqU-unsplash-860x586.jpg\" alt=\"Civil rights Black women protesting\" width=\"860\" height=\"586\" /> Photo by Unseen Histories on Unsplash[/caption]\r\n\r\nWhen black women flocked to the feminist movement, white women discriminated against them and devoted little attention to class issues that seriously affected black women, who tended to also be poor.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Historically, black women have chosen race over gender concerns, a choice that was especially poignant during Reconstruction when African American female leaders, such as Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, supported the Fifteenth Amendment giving black men the right to vote over the objections of white women suffragists.</p>\r\nBlack women have a long feminist tradition dating back to 19th-century activists such as Maria W. Stewart and Sojourner Truth as well as organizations like the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) and the National Council of Negro Women, founded in 1896 and 1935, respectively. Events of the 1960s and 1970s, not to mention black men's changing attitudes regarding the role of black women, focused awareness around new concerns such as race, gender, and class, and several organizations attempted to address these issues:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>The ANC (Aid to Needy Children) Mothers Anonymous of Watts and the National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO): </b>Johnnie Tillmon was an early pioneer of addressing the concerns of poor black women. A welfare mother living in Los Angeles's Nickerson Projects, Tillmon helped found ANC (Aid to Needy Children) Mothers Anonymous of Watts in 1963. She was later tapped to lead the National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO), founded in 1966. Through these organizations, Tillmon addressed such issues as equal pay for women, child care, and voter registration.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Black Women's Liberation Committee (BWLC): </b>Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) member Francis Beal was one of the founders of the Black Women's Liberation Committee (BWLC) in 1968. In 1969, Beal helped clarify the struggles of black women in the influential essay \"Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female\" that also appeared in the landmark 1970 anthology <i>The Black Woman, </i>which ushered in a new wave of black female writers. Beal identified capitalism as a key factor in the chasm between black men and women. During the early 1970s, the BWLC evolved into the Third World Women's Alliance.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>National Organization for Women (NOW): </b>Reverend Dr. Anna Pauline (Pauli) Murray is a cofounder of the nation's most prominent feminist organization, the National Organization for Women (NOW), founded in 1966.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>The National Black Feminist Organization: </b>While many black women remain active in mainstream feminist organizations only, other black women have created organizations aimed at addressing black women's unique concerns more effectively. The National Black Feminist Organization launched in 1973 with the specific goal of including black women of all ages, classes, and sexual orientation. Although it and similar organizations didn't outlive the 1970s, the legacy of black feminism lives on.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nIn 1983, Alice Walker coined the term <i>womanism, </i>a feminist ideology that addresses the black woman's unique history of racial and gender oppression. Women such as Angela Davis; law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw; academics Patricia Hill Collins, Beverly Guy Sheftall, and Bell Hooks; and historians Darlene Clark Hine, Paula Giddings, and Deborah Gray White have greatly expanded the context in which black women and their history and activism are discussed by underscoring black women's issues related to race, gender, and class.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":10229,"name":"Ronda Racha Penrice","slug":"ronda-racha-penrice","description":"Ronda Racha Penrice attended the master's program in Southern Studies at the University of Mississippi. A veteran freelance writer, the Columbia University alum has covered Black history and culture for publications, including Zora, Essence, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Ebony, TheGrio, The Root, and NBC's THINK. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10229"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":285269,"title":"Black American History For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"black-american-history-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","black-american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/285269"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":284350,"slug":"black-american-history-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119780854","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119780853/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119780853/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119780853-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119780853/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119780853/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/black-american-history-for-dummies-cover-9781119780854-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Black American History For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"\n <p><b data-author-id=\"10229\">Ronda Racha Penrice</b> attended the master's program in Southern Studies at the University of Mississippi. A veteran freelance writer, the Columbia University alum has covered Black history and culture for publications, including Zora, Essence, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Ebony, TheGrio, The Root, and NBC's THINK.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":10229,"name":"Ronda Racha Penrice","slug":"ronda-racha-penrice","description":"Ronda Racha Penrice attended the master's program in Southern Studies at the University of Mississippi. A veteran freelance writer, the Columbia University alum has covered Black history and culture for publications, including Zora, Essence, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Ebony, TheGrio, The Root, and NBC's THINK. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10229"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119780854&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-622648662e01b\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119780854&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-622648662ec0c\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-03-04T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":201339},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2019-11-19T03:37:52+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-03-07T17:09:32+00:00","timestamp":"2022-03-07T18:01:10+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"Women in the American Revolution","strippedTitle":"women in the american revolution","slug":"women-in-the-american-revolution","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about the role that women played in the American Revolution by working at home for the cause as well as near the battle front.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"It is an inescapable fact that there were no “Founding Mothers,” at least not in the sense the term \"Founding Fathers” is used to describe the male leaders of the <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/history/american-history/american-revolution-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">American Revolution</a>. No women served in Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, or helped draft the Articles of Confederation or US Constitution.\r\n\r\nWhile specifics varied from state to state and sometimes from community to community, women during this period generally had little legal standing. So tiny was their role in politics that even to suggest having a larger one was a subject of great humor — at least to men.\r\n\r\nWhen Abagail Adams wrote her husband John in 1776 to “remember the ladies” while drafting the fledgling country’s new government, he replied, “I cannot help but laugh. . . . Depend upon it. We know better than to repeal our Masculine systems.”\r\n\r\nTo a colleague, however, John took a more serious, if just as chauvinistic, tone. Extending the right to vote too widely under the new government would open a Pandora’s box of universal demands: “There will be no End to It. New Claims will arise. Women will demand a Vote.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >American revolutionary women labored on the home front</h2>\r\nWomen could and did enter the political arena by writing letters, circulars, and tracts and helping to operate lines of communication and information. And as in all great wars, it fell to women to do everything but fight to keep things going. When Americans quit buying machine-made cloth from England, for example, American women had to make it by hand.\r\n\r\n“I rise with the sun and all through the long day I have no time for aught but my work,” wrote a Connecticut farmer’s wife whose husband was off to the war. Even during family prayer time, she admitted, her mind was on “whether Polly remembered to set the sponge for the bread, or put water in the leach tub or to turn the cloth in the dyeing vat. . .”\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Less specific but more important, women were expected, at least in Patriot families, to infuse the children with the spirit of representative democracy and the value of individual liberty. It was a task that historian Linda Kerber labeled “republican motherhood,” and political leaders urged Revolutionary-era men to remind their spouses of its importance. “Let their husbands point out the necessity of such conduct,” wrote Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina, “that it is the only thing that can save them and their children from distresses, slavery and disgrace…”.</p>\r\nIn addition to bearing the brunt of wartime shortages and other hardships, it also fell to women to bear the losses of men who would not come home from the fighting, as well as steeling themselves to send off their husbands and sons to war — or going themselves.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Women near the battle front in the American Revolution</h2>\r\nA widowed Irish immigrant in South Carolina, Elizabeth Jackson lost two of her three sons to the war. She nonetheless volunteered to act as a nurse for wounded Americans held on British prison ships in Charleston Harbor. After contracting cholera, she summoned her remaining 15-year-old son, who had been fighting the British since he was 12 and bore the slash marks of a British officer’s sword to prove it. “Avoid quarrels if you can,” Andrew Jackson recalled his mother telling him before she died, “ . . . (but) if you ever have to vindicate your honor, do it calmly.”\r\n\r\nWomen often served as nurses, cooks, seamstresses, and laundresses to the various militias and Continental Army. General Washington wasn’t keen on the practice, since the women had to be fed precious rations. And, try as he might with repeated orders to the contrary, they often hitched rides in supply wagons, thus slowing things down. But since his own wife Martha often traveled with him, Washington did not order his commanders to ban women entirely from the army camps.\r\n\r\nIf they didn’t tag along with their husbands, sons, and brothers, women might make uniforms, gather food, or perform other tasks for the troops. One group of three dozen Philadelphia residents were so persistent in raising funds for the army, a Loyalist complained “people were obliged to give them something to get rid of them.” They ultimately raised the staggering modern-day equivalent of $300,000.\r\n\r\n“Necessity,” a Revolutionary War woman recalled in 1810, “taught us to make exertions which our girls of the present day know nothing of.”","description":"It is an inescapable fact that there were no “Founding Mothers,” at least not in the sense the term \"Founding Fathers” is used to describe the male leaders of the <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/history/american-history/american-revolution-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">American Revolution</a>. No women served in Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, or helped draft the Articles of Confederation or US Constitution.\r\n\r\nWhile specifics varied from state to state and sometimes from community to community, women during this period generally had little legal standing. So tiny was their role in politics that even to suggest having a larger one was a subject of great humor — at least to men.\r\n\r\nWhen Abagail Adams wrote her husband John in 1776 to “remember the ladies” while drafting the fledgling country’s new government, he replied, “I cannot help but laugh. . . . Depend upon it. We know better than to repeal our Masculine systems.”\r\n\r\nTo a colleague, however, John took a more serious, if just as chauvinistic, tone. Extending the right to vote too widely under the new government would open a Pandora’s box of universal demands: “There will be no End to It. New Claims will arise. Women will demand a Vote.”\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >American revolutionary women labored on the home front</h2>\r\nWomen could and did enter the political arena by writing letters, circulars, and tracts and helping to operate lines of communication and information. And as in all great wars, it fell to women to do everything but fight to keep things going. When Americans quit buying machine-made cloth from England, for example, American women had to make it by hand.\r\n\r\n“I rise with the sun and all through the long day I have no time for aught but my work,” wrote a Connecticut farmer’s wife whose husband was off to the war. Even during family prayer time, she admitted, her mind was on “whether Polly remembered to set the sponge for the bread, or put water in the leach tub or to turn the cloth in the dyeing vat. . .”\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Less specific but more important, women were expected, at least in Patriot families, to infuse the children with the spirit of representative democracy and the value of individual liberty. It was a task that historian Linda Kerber labeled “republican motherhood,” and political leaders urged Revolutionary-era men to remind their spouses of its importance. “Let their husbands point out the necessity of such conduct,” wrote Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina, “that it is the only thing that can save them and their children from distresses, slavery and disgrace…”.</p>\r\nIn addition to bearing the brunt of wartime shortages and other hardships, it also fell to women to bear the losses of men who would not come home from the fighting, as well as steeling themselves to send off their husbands and sons to war — or going themselves.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Women near the battle front in the American Revolution</h2>\r\nA widowed Irish immigrant in South Carolina, Elizabeth Jackson lost two of her three sons to the war. She nonetheless volunteered to act as a nurse for wounded Americans held on British prison ships in Charleston Harbor. After contracting cholera, she summoned her remaining 15-year-old son, who had been fighting the British since he was 12 and bore the slash marks of a British officer’s sword to prove it. “Avoid quarrels if you can,” Andrew Jackson recalled his mother telling him before she died, “ . . . (but) if you ever have to vindicate your honor, do it calmly.”\r\n\r\nWomen often served as nurses, cooks, seamstresses, and laundresses to the various militias and Continental Army. General Washington wasn’t keen on the practice, since the women had to be fed precious rations. And, try as he might with repeated orders to the contrary, they often hitched rides in supply wagons, thus slowing things down. But since his own wife Martha often traveled with him, Washington did not order his commanders to ban women entirely from the army camps.\r\n\r\nIf they didn’t tag along with their husbands, sons, and brothers, women might make uniforms, gather food, or perform other tasks for the troops. One group of three dozen Philadelphia residents were so persistent in raising funds for the army, a Loyalist complained “people were obliged to give them something to get rid of them.” They ultimately raised the staggering modern-day equivalent of $300,000.\r\n\r\n“Necessity,” a Revolutionary War woman recalled in 1810, “taught us to make exertions which our girls of the present day know nothing of.”","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":"Steve Wiegand is an award-winning journalist and history writer. During his 35-year career at the San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle, and Sacramento Bee, he interviewed several US presidents and governors. He is also the author of US History For Dummies. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9116"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"American revolutionary women labored on the home front","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Women near the battle front in the American Revolution","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":265926,"title":"Native Americans in the Revolutionary War","slug":"native-americans-in-the-revolutionary-war","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265926"}},{"articleId":265923,"title":"Slavery and the American Revolution","slug":"slavery-and-the-american-revolution","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265923"}},{"articleId":265917,"title":"The Impact of the American Revolution on the Home Front","slug":"the-impact-of-the-american-revolution-on-the-home-front","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265917"}},{"articleId":265911,"title":"The Lack of Unity in Early American Colonies","slug":"the-lack-of-unity-in-early-american-colonies","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265911"}},{"articleId":265905,"title":"American History: The Plymouth Colony","slug":"american-history-the-plymouth-colony","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/265905"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281944,"slug":"american-revolution-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119593492","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119593492-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119593492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/american-revolution-for-dummies-cover-9781119593492-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"American Revolution For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"\n <p><b data-author-id=\"9116\">Steve Wiegand</b> is an award-winning journalist and history writer. During his 35-year career at the San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle, and Sacramento Bee, he interviewed several US presidents and governors. He is also the author of US History For Dummies.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":"Steve Wiegand is an award-winning journalist and history writer. During his 35-year career at the San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle, and Sacramento Bee, he interviewed several US presidents and governors. He is also the author of US History For Dummies. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9116"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119593492&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-622648661c065\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119593492&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-622648661cb7d\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-03-07T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":265932},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:57:19+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-02-23T21:12:27+00:00","timestamp":"2022-02-24T17:07:37+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"US History For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"us history for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"u-s-history-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"US history is as complex and fascinating as the people who populate the country. A timeline of significant events in the life of the United States of America starts with hunters crossing the Bering Strait, through the fight for independence, and to the election of 44 men to serve as president. The election of the 43rd, Barack Obama, is of historical significance in itself as he was the first African American president.","description":"US history is as complex and fascinating as the people who populate the country. A timeline of significant events in the life of the United States of America starts with hunters crossing the Bering Strait, through the fight for independence, and to the election of 44 men to serve as president. The election of the 43rd, Barack Obama, is of historical significance in itself as he was the first African American president.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":"Steve Wiegand is an award-winning journalist and history writer. During his 35-year career at the San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle, and Sacramento Bee, he interviewed several US presidents and governors. He is also the author of US History For Dummies. 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Over a 35-year career, he worked as a reporter and columnist at the <i>San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle</i>, and <i>Sacramento Bee</i>. He is the author or coauthor of seven books dealing with various aspects of U.S. and world history. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":9116,"name":"Steve Wiegand","slug":"steve-wiegand","description":"Steve Wiegand is an award-winning journalist and history writer. During his 35-year career at the San Diego Evening Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle, and Sacramento Bee, he interviewed several US presidents and governors. He is also the author of US History For Dummies. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9116"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119550693&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb59cf4cc\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119550693&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb59cfe4f\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":194014,"title":"Key Dates in U.S. History","slug":"key-dates-in-u-s-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/194014"}}],"content":[{"title":"Key dates in US history","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>You may think US history starts with the American Revolution, but before that pivotal event came the hunters who first explored the continent and the Europeans who tried to colonize it.</p>\n<p>Of course, after John Hancock and his colleagues signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776, things got really interesting, and historically significant people and events contributed to the making of the country we have today.</p>\n<p>The following timeline offers a few of the significant milestones:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-261869\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119550693-fgcs01a.jpg\" alt=\"U.S. history timeline\" width=\"535\" height=\"695\" /></p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-261870\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119550693-fgcs01b.jpg\" alt=\"U.S. history timeline\" width=\"535\" height=\"770\" /></p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-02-23T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":209241},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:57:16+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-01-27T20:12:57+00:00","timestamp":"2022-02-24T17:07:27+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"US Constitution For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"us constitution for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"u-s-constitution-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"This handy Cheat Sheet is a quick reference to the US Constitution, including its signers, the Bill of Rights, and more.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"The US Constitution was written and signed by men who craved independence from Britain but who were nonetheless steeped in its history and ideals.\r\n\r\nThe document starts with some basic precepts of English governance, but then adds some uniquely American twists — three branches of government that act to check and balance each other, for example.\r\n\r\nAlthough much thought went into the Constitution, the framers left it open to amendment. The first ten amendments were ratified just four years after the Constitution itself and are known as the Bill of Rights.","description":"The US Constitution was written and signed by men who craved independence from Britain but who were nonetheless steeped in its history and ideals.\r\n\r\nThe document starts with some basic precepts of English governance, but then adds some uniquely American twists — three branches of government that act to check and balance each other, for example.\r\n\r\nAlthough much thought went into the Constitution, the framers left it open to amendment. The first ten amendments were ratified just four years after the Constitution itself and are known as the Bill of Rights.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":10206,"name":"Michael Arnheim","slug":"michael-arnheim","description":"As a lawyer who consults with various US firms on constitutional issues and as author of a text on British constitutional law, Michael Arnheim is uniquely qualified to present an unbiased view of the US Constitution, what it says, what it means, and how it's been interpreted in a variety of situations.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10206"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34474,"title":"American Government","slug":"american-government","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34474"}},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":256325,"title":"When and Why the U.S. Constitution Was Created","slug":"when-and-why-the-u-s-constitution-was-created","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/256325"}},{"articleId":256319,"title":"How the U.S. Constitution Is Interpreted","slug":"how-the-u-s-constitution-is-interpreted","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/256319"}},{"articleId":254942,"title":"Riley v. California (2014)","slug":"riley-v-california-2014","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/254942"}},{"articleId":254939,"title":"Glossip v. Gross (2015)","slug":"glossip-v-gross-2015","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/254939"}},{"articleId":254936,"title":"Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)","slug":"obergefell-v-hodges-2015","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/254936"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282645,"slug":"u-s-constitution-for-dummies-2nd-edition","isbn":"9781119387299","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119387299-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119387299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/u.s.-constitution-for-dummies-2nd-edition-cover-9781119387299-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"U.S. Constitution For Dummies, 2nd Edition","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"\n <p>As a lawyer who consults with various U.S. firms on constitutional issues and as author of a text on British constitutional law, <b data-author-id=\"10206\">Dr. Michael Arnheim</b> is uniquely qualified to present an unbiased view of the U.S. Constitution, what it says, what it means, and how it's been interpreted in a variety of situations. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":10206,"name":"Michael Arnheim","slug":"michael-arnheim","description":"As a lawyer who consults with various US firms on constitutional issues and as author of a text on British constitutional law, Michael Arnheim is uniquely qualified to present an unbiased view of the US Constitution, what it says, what it means, and how it's been interpreted in a variety of situations.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10206"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119387299&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb4f3e7a5\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119387299&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb4f3f147\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":193931,"title":"The U.S. Constitution and the Establishment of Government","slug":"the-u-s-constitution-and-the-establishment-of-government","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193931"}},{"articleId":193928,"title":"The U.S. Constitution’s First Ten Amendments: The Bill of Rights","slug":"the-u-s-constitutions-first-ten-amendments-the-bill-of-rights","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193928"}},{"articleId":193930,"title":"Who Signed the U.S. Constitution?","slug":"who-signed-the-u-s-constitution","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193930"}}],"content":[{"title":"The Constitution and the establishment of government","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The U.S. Constitution, as adopted by the Philadelphia Convention on September 17, 1787, sets out three distinct branches of national government and provides powers to each that serve as a check on the others. The following sections offer key facts about each branch.</p>\n<h2>The Executive Branch: The President</h2>\n<p>The highest elected official in the United States, the President</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Is Commander in Chief of the U.S. armed forces. However, only Congress can actually declare war.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Has the power to veto legislation passed by both houses of Congress (the House of Representatives and the Senate). Congress can override the veto only with a two-thirds majority.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Appoints Cabinet officers, Supreme Court justices, and many other officials — subject to confirmation by the Senate.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h2>The Legislative Branch: Congress</h2>\n<p>The Constitution provides for two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The population of a state determines how many people it elects to the House of Representatives. Each state elects two Senators, so the Senate offers an equal playing field for small states and large states.</p>\n<p>Congress has the power to make all federal laws, and only the House can introduce tax legislation. The Senate has the power to confirm or deny the President’s appointments to the Cabinet, the Supreme Court, and other key positions.</p>\n<h2>The Judicial Branch: The Supreme Court</h2>\n<p>Each justice is nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate, and has the opportunity to serve in that position for life as long as he or she demonstrates what the Constitution calls “Good Behaviour.” The Supreme Court effectively determines what the Constitution means.</p>\n"},{"title":"The first ten amendments: The Bill of Rights","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Some of the signers of the U.S. Constitution felt the need to spell out the rights of individual citizens in contrast to the establishment of the powers of the federal government enumerated in the Constitution itself. Thus, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the <i>Bill of Rights,</i> were ratified as a group by December 15, 1791. They are:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment I:</b> Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment II:</b> A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment III:</b> No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment IV:</b> The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment V:</b> No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment VI:</b> In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment VII:</b> In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment VIII:</b> Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment IX:</b> The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Amendment X:</b> The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Who signed the US Constitution?","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The 38 signers of the U.S. Constitution were delegates from the original states who gathered several times and in several places, first drafting the Declaration of Independence, and then, after the colonists defeated the British army and won independence, writing the U.S. Constitution. The signers of the two documents have some overlap — Benjamin Franklin signed both, but John Hancock wrote large only on the Declaration of Independence. The delegates are here grouped by the states they represented:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Connecticut:</b> William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Delaware:</b> George Read, Gunning Bedford Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Georgia:</b> William Few, Abraham Baldwin</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Maryland:</b> James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Massachusetts:</b> Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>New Hampshire:</b> John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>New Jersey:</b> William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>New York:</b> Alexander Hamilton</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>North Carolina:</b> William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Pennsylvania:</b> Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas FitzSimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>South Carolina:</b> John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Pierce Butler</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Virginia:</b> George Washington (President and deputy), John Blair, James Madison Jr.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-01-27T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":209228},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:55:51+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-01-12T21:11:06+00:00","timestamp":"2022-02-24T17:07:23+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"History","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33670"},"slug":"history","categoryId":33670},{"name":"American","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"},"slug":"american","categoryId":33672}],"title":"The American Civil War For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"the american civil war for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"the-civil-war-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"The American Civil War encompasses a vast number of political, social, and military events. This cheat sheet outlines the concepts required to understand the civil war, as well as the key political events leading to the war, the major events of the war, and the people who played key roles.","description":"The American Civil War encompasses a vast number of political, social, and military events. This cheat sheet outlines the concepts required to understand the civil war, as well as the key political events leading to the war, the major events of the war, and the people who played key roles.","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33672,"title":"American","slug":"american","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":288783,"title":"First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"50-key-dates-in-us-first-lady-history","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/288783"}},{"articleId":269903,"title":"Performing Many Roles: The President’s Duties in Modern Times","slug":"performing-many-roles-the-presidents-duties-in-modern-times","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269903"}},{"articleId":269900,"title":"President Donald Trump: Controversies at Home and Abroad","slug":"president-donald-trump-controversies-at-home-and-abroad","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269900"}},{"articleId":269894,"title":"Scandals: Defining Donald Trump’s Presidency","slug":"scandals-defining-donald-trumps-presidency","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269894"}},{"articleId":269891,"title":"The 10 Worst Presidents","slug":"the-10-worst-presidents","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","history","american"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/269891"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb4bc35eb\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;history&quot;,&quot;american&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb4bc3fb8\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Understanding war, strategy, campaigns, and tactics","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Everyone knows what war is, right? All wars are not the same and what some people call war is not really war at all. It&#8217;s more than just generalship and battles.</p>\n<p>To understand war, it&#8217;s necessary to define what kind of conflict we are talking about, because war is extremely complex and needs to be understood if a study of <em>any</em> war is to make sense.</p>\n<p>So where do we begin? What is war? To understand the American Civil War, we need to know that, for our purposes, war was state-based armed violence fought by citizens in defense of large political ideas. Political leaders of the states controlled and managed the purpose of war and legitimized the level of armed violence necessary to bring about the total defeat of the opposing state.</p>\n<p>The United States (what was left of it after 1861) and the Confederate States of America (composed of the seceded states) were the state actors involved, each seeking to achieve a political end. For the United States, it was to restore the Union; for the Confederacy, it was to create an independent nation. These political ends had to be translated into strategy.</p>\n<p>To achieve the desired political end, ways (armed forces) and means (resources) had to be identified, marshalled, and employed. Determining how forces and resources are to be employed to achieve the political end is known as strategy.</p>\n<p>Strategy is the large concept that defines how the war is to be fought. A poor strategy will lead to indecisive battles of attrition that devolve into stalemate. A good strategy that integrates forces and resources in a cohesive and imaginative way will allow military commanders to defeat enemy forces on the battlefield that will lead to achieving the state’s political ends.</p>\n<p>Employing forces and resources requires that commanders conduct campaigns. Campaigns are a series of strategically focused, properly resourced movements, maneuvers, and battles intended to place enemy forces at a disadvantage, forcing a retreat or resulting in defeat and destruction on the battlefield.</p>\n<p>Once a battle is joined, commanders employ tactics to position their units in an advantageous position using infantry, artillery, and cavalry together, or separately, or in sequence, to impose maximum destruction on enemy forces.</p>\n<p>It sounds simple, so why is war so difficult? Because war is a human endeavor and it is fraught with human foibles and emotions. The true picture of the battlefield is never clear and nothing is altogether certain once units are engaged in combat. The drama, the terror, the uncertainty of the battlefield, combined with the doubts, the will, the spirit, and the courage of the commanders and the soldiers involved make war a realm of mystery.</p>\n<p>Afterward, it is relatively easy to pick out what happened and why. But in the midst of the chaos of battle, everything matters and nothing matters at the same time. Those who rise above this incredible contradiction are able to impose a level of control over events and determine the outcome. Once the battle is decided, the army commander assesses the situation and determines the next action, understanding the overall strategic purpose, while keeping the goals of the campaign in mind.</p>\n<p>With this background, you will be able to view the Civil War with deeper appreciation. Battles of the Civil War do not stand alone; each is linked to a campaign with a strategic purpose supporting a larger political outcome.</p>\n<p>The battles themselves tell the story of how well or poorly commanders at various levels succeeded in moving and maneuvering forces, how well or poorly they integrated their capabilities, and whether they could stand up to the enormous pressures of a dynamic and uncertain battlefield.</p>\n<p>Finally, in the aftermath of a battle, how did the commanders follow or fail to follow a campaign plan? What were the consequences of victory or defeat for the larger strategic picture? How did this outcome relate to the political ends desired? With this understanding, the Civil War becomes a never-ending source of engagement with events that have an immediacy that draws you into another time. It is worth every minute.</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n"},{"title":"Key political events leading to war: 1860 to 1861","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<h3>May 1860:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Democrats are unable to unify to nominate a candidate over the issue of the extension of slavery into the territories.</li>\n<li>Republicans nominate Abraham Lincoln for president.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>June 1860:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Democrats split into Northern and Southern wings, each nominating their own candidate.</li>\n<li>Constitutional Union party is formed from the Democratic party breakup and nominates its candidate for president.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>November 1860:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Abraham Lincoln is elected president.</li>\n<li>South Carolina calls for a convention to leave the Union (secede).</li>\n<li>Major Robert Anderson, commander of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, asks for reinforcements.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>December 1860:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>President James Buchanan declares that secession from the Union of states is unconstitutional and also declares at the same time that the federal government can do nothing to stop such an action.</li>\n<li>December 20: South Carolina secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>December 22: Lincoln rejects a Congressional committee’s attempt at compromise that would protect slavery in the territories.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>January 1861:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The <em>Star of the West</em>, a ship with supplies for Fort Sumter dispatched by order of President Buchanan, is turned back when fired upon as it enters Charleston Harbor.</li>\n<li>January 9: Mississippi secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>January 10: Florida secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>January 11: Alabama secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>January 19: Georgia secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>January 26: Louisiana secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>January 29: Kansas is admitted to the Union.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>February 1861:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>February 1: Texas secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>February 4: The seceded states meet in Montgomery, Alabama, to form a new government.</li>\n<li>February 8: A new constitution for the Confederate States of America is approved.</li>\n<li>February 18: Jefferson Davis is inaugurated as provisional president.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>March 1861:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>March 4: Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>April 1861:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>April 4: Lincoln orders a relief expedition to Fort Sumter.</li>\n<li>April 12: Confederate batteries fire on Fort Sumter.</li>\n<li>April 15: Lincoln calls for 75,000 volunteers.</li>\n<li>April 18: Robert E. Lee is offered command of the U.S. Army.</li>\n<li>April 19: Lincoln proclaims a blockade of Confederate ports.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>May 1861:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>May 6: Arkansas secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>May 7 Tennessee aligns with the Confederacy.</li>\n<li>May 20 North Carolina secedes from the Union.</li>\n<li>May 23: Virginia secedes from the Union.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>June 1861:</h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Western counties of Virginia refuse to secede and set up a separate government.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Major events of 1861","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<h3>Eastern Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>June 21</strong>: Battle of Manassas (Bull Run). Union forces under General McDowell suffer a defeat after several hours of confused fighting.</p>\n<p><strong>June 27</strong>: McClellan replaces McDowell as commander of U.S. troops outside of Washington.</p>\n<p><strong>August 29</strong>: Union naval and ground forces capture Confederate forts defending Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.</p>\n<p><strong>November 1</strong>: McClellan is appointed general-in-chief, replacing General Winfield Scott.</p>\n<p><strong>November 8</strong>: Mason and Slidell, Confederate diplomats, are taken off the British steamer <em>Trent</em> by a U.S. warship.</p>\n<p><strong>December 20</strong>: The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War is established to provide congressional oversight of military operations.</p>\n<h3>Western Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>August 10</strong>: Battle of Wilson’s Creek, Missouri. After a confusing battle, Confederate forces hold the field and maintain control of southwest Missouri.</p>\n<p><strong>September 4</strong>: Confederate troops under Leonidas Polk capture Columbus, Kentucky, ending the state’s neutrality.</p>\n<p><strong>September 10</strong>: Albert Sidney Johnston takes command of all Confederate forces in the Western Theater.</p>\n"},{"title":"Major events of 1862","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<h2>Eastern Theater</h2>\n<p><strong>February 8</strong>: Brigadier General Ambrose Burnside succeeds in capturing Roanoke Island, North Carolina.</p>\n<p><strong>March 9</strong>: The first battle of the ironclads happens at Hampton Roads, Virginia: CSS <em>Virginia</em> vs. USS <em>Monitor.</em></p>\n<p><strong>March 17</strong>: McClellan initiates movement of Army of the Potomac to Fort Monroe, Virginia, to conduct a campaign to capture Richmond.</p>\n<p><strong>March 23</strong>: Major General Thomas J. (Stonewall) Jackson encounters Union forces under Brigadier General Shields at Kernstown, forcing Jackson to retreat.</p>\n<p><strong>April 4–5</strong>: Peninsula Campaign begins; McClellan initiates siege at Yorktown.</p>\n<p><strong>April 16</strong>: Confederate Congress authorizes conscription; owners of 20 or more slaves are exempt; substitutes can be hired, or an exemption can be bought for $500.</p>\n<p><strong>May 8</strong>: Jackson defeats a Union force at McDowell, Virginia, to initiate the Valley campaign.</p>\n<p><strong>May 25</strong>: Jackson defeats Nathaniel Banks’s Union army at Front Royal and drives the army out of Winchester, Virginia.</p>\n<p><strong>May 31</strong>: General Joseph E. Johnston is wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines outside of Richmond. He is succeeded by General Robert E. Lee.</p>\n<p><strong>June 8</strong>: Jackson defeats Frémont at the Battle of Cross Keys, Virginia.</p>\n<p><strong>May 9</strong>: Jackson defeats Shields at Port Republic, Virginia.</p>\n<p><strong>June 15</strong>: J.E.B. Stuart completes his four-day ride around McClellan’s army.</p>\n<p><strong>June 17</strong>: Jackson’s Valley army begins movement south to Join Lee’s army in Richmond.</p>\n<p><strong>June 19</strong>: Slavery is abolished in U.S. territories.</p>\n<p><strong>June 26</strong>: Lee attacks McClellan’s right wing at Mechanicsville, intending to defeat the Union army before Richmond.</p>\n<p><strong>June 27</strong>: Lee attacks Union forces at Gaines’s Mill. McClellan begins a withdrawal to the James River.</p>\n<p><strong>June 29</strong>: Lee attacks at Savage Station, attempting to trap the Union army.</p>\n<p><strong>June 30</strong>: Lee attacks at Frayser’s Farm to cut off McClellan’s line of retreat.</p>\n<p><strong>July 1</strong>: Confederate forces are stopped at Malvern Hill, allowing McClellan to reach safety under protection of Union gunboats at Harrison’s Landing.</p>\n<p><strong>July 11</strong>: Halleck becomes general-in-chief of the Union armies. Major General Pope, with a newly organized Army of Virginia, begins to advance toward Richmond.</p>\n<p><strong>July 22</strong>: Lincoln presents his first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet.</p>\n<p><strong>August 9</strong>: Jackson strikes at a portion of Pope’s army at Cedar Mountain.</p>\n<p><strong>August 26</strong>: Jackson’s forces occupy and destroy Pope’s supply depot at Manassas.</p>\n<p><strong>August 28</strong>: Jackson conducts a surprise attack on Union troops near Groveton.</p>\n<p><strong>August 29</strong>: Jackson defends the high ground near Manassas against Pope’s army.</p>\n<p><strong>August 30</strong>: Battle of Second Manassas. Longstreet’s attack breaks Pope’s army, leading to a rout toward Washington.</p>\n<p><strong>September 2</strong>: McClellan takes control of all Union forces consolidated around Washington. Pope is relieved of command.</p>\n<p><strong>September 5</strong>: Lee crosses the Potomac River and enters Maryland.</p>\n<p><strong>September 13</strong>: McClellan receives a lost copy of Lee’s orders.</p>\n<p><strong>September 16</strong>: McClellan’s army reaches Antietam Creek. Lee’s army is waiting at Sharpsburg.</p>\n<p><strong>September 17</strong>: Battle of Antietam. The bloodiest day of the war. Although battered but not broken, Lee’s army retreats back to Virginia the following day.</p>\n<p><strong>November 7</strong>: Lincoln replaces McClellan with Burnside as the commander of the Army of the Potomac.</p>\n<p><strong>December 11</strong>: Burnside orders the crossing of the Rappahannock River to drive Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia away from Fredericksburg in preparation for an advance on Richmond.</p>\n<p><strong>December 13</strong>: Battle of Fredericksburg. The Army of the Potomac batters itself to exhaustion against Confederate defenses. It retreats across the Rappahannock two days later.</p>\n<h3>Western Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>February 6</strong>: Ulysses S. Grant and Flag Officer Andrew Foote conduct a joint operation to capture Fort Henry on the Tennessee River.</p>\n<p><strong>February 13–16</strong>: Grant surrounds and captures 15,000 Confederate troops at Fort Donelson.</p>\n<p><strong>February 25</strong>: Confederate forces retreat from southwestern Kentucky and abandon Nashville, Tennessee.</p>\n<p><strong>March 8</strong>: Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, Confederate defeat allows the Union to secure Missouri.</p>\n<p><strong>March 17</strong>: Grant takes command of Union forces at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee.</p>\n<p><strong>March 29</strong>: Albert Sidney Johnston consolidates Confederate forces at Corinth, Mississippi, intending to strike Grant.</p>\n<p><strong>April 6</strong>: Confederate surprise attack on Grant’s army assembled near Shiloh Church. Johnston is killed and P.G.T. Beauregard takes command. Union troops are driven to a perimeter near Pittsburg Landing.</p>\n<p><strong>April 7</strong>: With timely reinforcements, Grant launches a successful counterattack. The Confederate army retreats to Corinth.</p>\n<p><strong>April 25</strong>: Flag Officer David Farragut captures New Orleans.</p>\n<p><strong>April 29</strong>: Henry Halleck, commander of all Union forces in the Western Theater, takes personal command of Grant’s army and inches toward Corinth.</p>\n<p><strong>May 30</strong>: Beauregard evacuates Corinth.</p>\n<p><strong>June 27</strong>: Braxton Bragg takes command of the Confederate Army of the Mississippi from Beauregard.</p>\n<p><strong>August 28</strong>: Bragg’s Confederate army moves north to link with Major General Edmund Kirby Smith’s army, both heading north into Kentucky.</p>\n<p><strong>September 17</strong>: Bragg occupies Munfordville, Kentucky, threatening Union lines of supply from Louisville.</p>\n<p><strong>September 19</strong>: Battle of Iuka, Mississippi. Major General Rosecrans defeats Confederate forces under Major General Sterling Price.</p>\n<p><strong>September 29</strong>: Major General Buell’s Army of the Cumberland, pursuing Bragg and Smith, arrives in Louisville.</p>\n<p><strong>October 4</strong>: Battle of Corinth. Rosecrans defeats repeated attacks by Confederate forces under Major General Earl Van Dorn.</p>\n<p><strong>September 8</strong>: Battle of Perryville. A confused battle ends with the retreat of Bragg and Kirby. Major General Buell has stopped the Confederate invasion of Kentucky.</p>\n<p><strong>September 30</strong>: Major General Rosecrans replaces Buell as commander of the Army of the Cumberland.</p>\n<p><strong>November 2</strong>: Grant begins an advance from Tennessee November to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi.</p>\n<p><strong>December 29</strong>: Major General Sherman’s Union forces are stopped at Chickasaw Bluffs before Vicksburg.</p>\n<p><strong>December 31</strong>: Battle of Murfreesboro (Stones River). Bragg believes he has inflicted a major defeat on Rosecrans’s army.</p>\n"},{"title":"Major events of 1863","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<h3>Eastern Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>January 1</strong>: Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation.</p>\n<p><strong>January 26</strong>: Major General “Fighting Joe” Hooker takes command of the Army of the Potomac from Burnside.</p>\n<p><strong>March 3</strong>: U.S. Congress passes a conscription act. All men aged 20–45 are eligible, but $300 will buy an exemption, or a conscript can hire a substitute.</p>\n<p><strong>April 30</strong>: With exceptional skill, Hooker places three corps of the Army of the Potomac behind Lee’s defenses at Fredericksburg, concentrating at Chancellorsville.</p>\n<p><strong>May 1–2</strong>: Lee counterattacks fiercely, forcing Hooker to retreat into the Wilderness. The following day Jackson moves around the flank of the Union army and launches a surprise attack. Jackson is wounded and J.E.B. Stuart takes command of Jackson’s corps.</p>\n<p><strong>May 3</strong>: Hooker retreats to the Rappahannock River fords. Major General Sedgwick, marching from Fredericksburg to Hooker’s aid, is defeated at Salem Church.</p>\n<p><strong>May 6</strong>: The Army of the Potomac makes a sullen retreat across the Rappahannock.</p>\n<p><strong>May 10</strong>: Lieutenant General Thomas J. Jackson dies.</p>\n<p><strong>June 3</strong>: Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia moves north toward Pennsylvania.</p>\n<p><strong>June 28</strong>: Major General George G. Meade takes command of the Army of the Potomac after Lincoln relieves Hooker of command.</p>\n<p><strong>June 29</strong>: Lee learns that the Union army is moving north toward his scattered forces. He orders a consolidation at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.</p>\n<p><strong>July 1–3</strong>: Battle of Gettysburg. Lee’s army batters Mead’s army in repeated attacks, but Union forces hold and Lee orders a long retreat back to Virginia two days later.</p>\n<p><strong>September 8</strong>: A Union naval attack on Fort Sumter is repulsed.</p>\n<p><strong>November 19</strong>: Lincoln delivers the Gettysburg Address.</p>\n<h3>Western Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>January 1</strong>: At Murfreesboro, Rosecrans does not retreat, but holds against futile Confederate attacks, forcing Bragg to retreat.</p>\n<p><strong>April 16</strong>: Admiral David Dixon Porter makes a dramatic run with his flotilla past the Vicksburg batteries, opening the way for Grant to move his army below the city of Vicksburg.</p>\n<p><strong>April 30</strong>: Grant crosses the Mississippi below Vicksburg.</p>\n<p><strong>May 1</strong>: Battle of Port Gibson. Union forces open the way to an advance north toward Vicksburg.</p>\n<p><strong>May 16</strong>: Battle of Champion’s Hill. Union forces overwhelm Confederate defenses, opening the way to Vicksburg.</p>\n<p><strong>May 22</strong>: Grant begins the siege of the city of Vicksburg.</p>\n<p><strong>June 23</strong>: Rosecrans advances on Bragg’s army consolidated around Tullahoma, Tennessee.</p>\n<p><strong>July 3</strong>: Commander of Confederate forces in Vicksburg, Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton, asks for surrender terms. Bragg retreats to Chattanooga.</p>\n<p><strong>July 4</strong>: Pemberton surrenders 30,000 troops to Grant. Vicksburg, the key to the Mississippi River, is under Union control.</p>\n<p><strong>July 9</strong>: Port Hudson, the last Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi, surrenders.</p>\n<p><strong>September 4</strong>: Bragg retreats from Chattanooga as Rosecrans advances.</p>\n<p><strong>September 17</strong>: Rosecrans begins to consolidate his dispersed forces at Chickamauga in north Georgia.</p>\n<p><strong>September 18</strong>: Bragg is reinforced by Longstreet’s corps, which moves by rail from Virginia to Georgia.</p>\n<p><strong>September 19–20</strong>: Battle of Chickamauga. After indecisive fighting the first day, the Confederates achieve a dramatic breakthrough and nearly destroy the Union army. Major General Thomas’s stubborn defense saves the army and earns him the title “Rock of Chickamauga.” Rosecrans retreats to Chattanooga.</p>\n<p><strong>September 23</strong>: Bragg occupies Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, trapping Rosecrans.</p>\n<p><strong>October 17</strong>: Grant is named the commander of all Union forces in the Western Theater.</p>\n<p><strong>October 19</strong>: Thomas replaces Rosecrans as the commander of the Army of the Cumberland at Chattanooga.</p>\n<p><strong>October 27</strong>: A line of supply is opened to the beleaguered Union troops at Chattanooga known as the “cracker line.”</p>\n<p><strong>November 4</strong>: Longstreet’s corps is dispatched to attack Burnside at Knoxville.</p>\n<p><strong>November 20</strong>: Major General Sherman, commander of the Army of the Tennessee, sends reinforcements to Thomas.</p>\n<p><strong>November 24</strong>: Union forces overwhelm Confederate defenders on Lookout Mountain.</p>\n<p><strong>November 25</strong>: Battle of Missionary Ridge. Sherman’s attack on the Confederate right flank stalls; without orders, the soldiers of the Army of the Cumberland attack up Missionary Ridge and rout the Confederates. Bragg retreats into Georgia.</p>\n<p><strong>November 29</strong>: Longstreet fails to dislodge Burnside’s troops defending Knoxville, Tennessee.</p>\n<p><strong>December 1</strong>: Bragg becomes President Davis’s military advisor.</p>\n<p><strong>December 27</strong>: Joseph E. Johnston takes command of the Army of Tennessee.</p>\n"},{"title":"Major events of 1864","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<h3>Eastern Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>February 17</strong>: Confederate submarine <em>Hunley</em> sinks the USS <em>Housatonic</em> in Charleston Harbor.</p>\n<p><strong>March 12</strong>: Grant is promoted to lieutenant general and is appointed general-in-chief of all Union armies.</p>\n<p><strong>May 4</strong>: Grant initiates the overland campaign, crossing the Rappahannock River to engage Lee.</p>\n<p><strong>May 5–6</strong>: Lee strikes while Union forces struggle through the Wilderness. The battle see-saws in brutal fighting. Longstreet is wounded. The Army of Northern Virginia holds the field, but the Union army does not retreat.</p>\n<p><strong>May 7</strong>: Grant continues to move, seeking to outflank Lee at Spotsylvania Court House.</p>\n<p><strong>May 8–9</strong>: Battle of Spotsylvania Court House. Union forces are stopped by entrenched Confederate defenders.</p>\n<p><strong>May 10</strong>: Union forces suffer heavy losses attacking the Confederate defenses.</p>\n<p><strong>May 12</strong>: Union attack at “Bloody Angle” is initially successful, but ends with Confederate forces holding the line.</p>\n<p><strong>May 15</strong>: Battle of New Market Major General John C. Breckinridge defeats Major General Franz Siegel, preventing a Union threat to the Shenandoah Valley.</p>\n<p><strong>May 20</strong>: Grant moves his army east to find Lee’s flank.</p>\n<p><strong>May 24</strong>: Lee is prepared for Grant with strong defensive lines on the North Anna River.</p>\n<p><strong>June 1</strong>: Lee again stops Grant’s attempt to outflank the Confederates by entrenching at Cold Harbor.</p>\n<p><strong>June 3</strong>: Battle of Cold Harbor. Grant underestimates the strength of Lee’s defenses and orders an attack that has no chance of success. The Army of the Potomac suffers heavy casualties.</p>\n<p><strong>June 8</strong>: The Republicans nominate Lincoln for president and Andrew Johnson, a pro-Union Democrat, for vice president.</p>\n<p><strong>June 14</strong>: Grant’s army begins an extraordinary move by disengaging from Lee’s front and moving secretly to the James River to cross far below the Confederate defenses.</p>\n<p><strong>June 15</strong>: Major General Smith’s disjointed attack on the Petersburg defenses, the key rain junction for Lee’s army, fails.</p>\n<p><strong>June 18</strong>: Although slow to react, Lee reinforces General Beauregard’s thinly stretched forces at Petersburg. Grant’s subsequent attacks on solid Confederate defenses fail.</p>\n<p>Major General David Hunter, who replaced Siegel, is stopped at Lynchburg, Virginia, by Lieutenant General Jubal Early.</p>\n<p><strong>June 19</strong>: The Confederate raider <em>Alabama</em> is sunk by the USS <em>Kearsarge</em> off the coast of Cherbourg, France.</p>\n<p><strong>June 23</strong>: Early begins an offensive to control the Shenandoah Valley and draw Union forces away from Petersburg.</p>\n<p><strong>July 9</strong>: Early’s troops cross into Maryland and threaten Washington.</p>\n<p><strong>July 30</strong>: Battle of the Crater. A mine under Confederate strongpoint at Petersburg is detonated and Union forces are badly defeated after a poorly conducted initial attack.</p>\n<p><strong>August 7</strong>: Sheridan assumes command of Union forces opposing Early in the Shenandoah Valley.</p>\n<p><strong>August 29</strong>: Democrats nominate George B. McClellan for president.</p>\n<p><strong>September 19</strong>: Battle of Winchester. Sheridan defeats Early’s Confederate forces defending the gateway to the Shenandoah Valley.</p>\n<p><strong>October 19</strong>: Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan wins a decisive victory, forcing Early to abandon the Valley.</p>\n<p><strong>November 8</strong>: Lincoln is reelected president.</p>\n<h3>Western Theater</h3>\n<p><strong>April 8</strong>: Nathaniel P. Banks’s ill-fated Red River campaign is stopped by Confederate forces under Major General Richard Taylor at Sabine Crossroads, Louisiana.</p>\n<p><strong>May 6</strong>: Sherman initiates his campaign to defeat Joe Johnston’s army.</p>\n<p><strong>May 13–15</strong>: Johnston retreats from Dalton to Resaca, Georgia, as Sherman seeks to outflank the strong Confederate defenses.</p>\n<p><strong>May 19</strong>: Johnston is again forced to retreat as Sherman skillfully arranges his three armies to threaten the Confederate defenses.</p>\n<p><strong>June 19</strong>: Johnston withdraws to Kennesaw Mountain.</p>\n<p><strong>June 27</strong>: Battle of Kennesaw Mountain. Sherman’s attack on the strong Confederate defensive line meets with failure.</p>\n<p><strong>July 9</strong>: Johnston is forced to retreat as Sherman’s forces advance toward Atlanta.</p>\n<p><strong>July 17</strong>: Johnston is replaced as the commander of the Army of Tennessee by General John B. Hood.</p>\n<p><strong>July 20–28</strong>: Hood launches three separate attacks on Union forces outside of Atlanta to no effect.</p>\n<p><strong>August 5</strong>: Admiral Farragut, leading a Union flotilla, occupies Mobile Bay.</p>\n<p><strong>August 31</strong>: Union forces cut off the last rail line supplying Atlanta, forcing Hood to abandon the city.</p>\n<p><strong>September 28</strong>: Hood moves north with his army, intending to cut Sherman’s supply lines and threaten Kentucky.</p>\n<p><strong>October 30</strong>: Sherman sends reinforcements under General Schofield to General Thomas at Nashville to protect the vital city as Hood advances into Tennessee.</p>\n<p><strong>November 15</strong>: Leaving a burning Atlanta behind, Sherman’s army begins the March to the Sea.</p>\n<p><strong>November 30</strong>: Battle of Franklin. Hood attempts to defeat Schofield’s forces before Schofield can join Thomas. Despite several heroic but ineffective Confederate attacks, no advantage is gained.</p>\n<p><strong>December 16</strong>: Thomas initiates a devastating attack on Hood’s army, forcing a desperate retreat into Mississippi.</p>\n<p><strong>December 21</strong>: Sherman reaches Savannah, Georgia, linking up with Union ships off the coast as Confederate troops evacuate the city.</p>\n"},{"title":"Key individuals of the American Civil War","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p><strong>Robert Anderson</strong> (USA): Commander of Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861. On April 14, 1865, at the reoccupied fort, he raises the same flag he took down four years earlier.</p>\n<p><strong>Clara Barton</strong> (USA): Became famous for care of wounded Union soldiers and advocating for improved medical treatment. First president of the American Red Cross.</p>\n<p><strong>P.G.T. Beauregard</strong> (CSA): Received the surrender of Fort Sumter in 1861. Commanded Confederate forces at the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862 and was instrumental in the initial defense of Petersburg in June 1864.</p>\n<p><strong>Braxton Bragg</strong> (CSA): Commanded a Confederate corps at the Battle of Shiloh in 1862. Commanded the Army of Mississippi at the Battle of Perryville, 1862. Commanded the Army of Tennessee at the battles of Murfreesboro (Stones River), Chickamauga, and Chattanooga. Military advisor to President Davis, 1864–1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Don Carlos Buell</strong> (USA): Commander of the Army of the Ohio at the battles of Shiloh and Perrysville, 1862. Relieved of command, October 1862.</p>\n<p><strong>Ambrose E. Burnside</strong> (USA): Commanded a Union brigade at the battle of First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commanded a corps at the battle of Antietam, 1862. Commanded the Army of the Potomac at the battle of Fredericksburg, 1862. Commanded the Army of the Ohio at Knoxville, Tennessee, 1863. Commanded a corps in the battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg, 1864. Relieved in August 1864 after the Battle of the Crater.</p>\n<p><strong>Benjamin F. Butler</strong> (USA): Commanded a brigade during the Peninsula Campaign and Second Manassas (Bull Run), 1862. Commander of occupied New Orleans, 1862. Commanded the Army of the James, November 1863 to January 1865. Relieved in January 1865 after failed assault on Fort Fisher in North Carolina.</p>\n<p><strong>Jefferson Davis</strong> (CSA): U.S. senator from Mississippi, 1847–1851 and 1857–1861. U.S. secretary of war, 1853–1857. President of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Jubal Early</strong> (CSA): Commanded a brigade at First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861, and the Peninsula Campaign, 1862. Commanded a division at Second Manassas (Bull Run), Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Wilderness, and Spotsylvania, 1862–1863. Commanded a corps at Cold Harbor and in the Valley of Virginia, 1864. Relieved of command after defeat at Waynesboro, Virginia, March 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Richard S. Ewell</strong> (CSA): Commanded a division in the Shenandoah Valley, 1862. Commanded a division in the Peninsula Campaign and at Second Manassas (Bull Run), 1862. Commanded a corps at Gettysburg, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, 1864. Relieved of command and placed in command of Richmond defenses; captured at the Battle of Sailor’s (Sayler’s) Creek, April 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>David Farragut</strong> (USA): Vice admiral of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron, U.S. Navy. Captured New Orleans, 1862. Supported Grant’s operations at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, 1863. Captured Mobile Bay, 1864.</p>\n<p><strong>Ulysses S. Grant</strong> (USA): Commander of two Union divisions that captured Forts Henry and Donelson, 1862. Commander of the Army of the Tennessee at Shiloh, 1862, and Vicksburg, 1863. Commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi, 1863–1864, during the Battle of Chattanooga, 1863. Named general-in-chief of all Union armies, March 1864. Directed the Overland Campaign of the Army of the Potomac, 1864, and the siege of Petersburg, 1864–1865. Participated in the strategy meeting with President Lincoln on the <em>River Queen</em> at City Point, Virginia on March 27, 1865. Accepted the surrender of Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Henry W. Halleck</strong> (USA): Commander Department of Missouri, 1861–1862. Commander of the Department of the Mississippi, 1862. General-in-chief of the Union armies, 1862–1864. Chief of staff, 1864–1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Winfield Scott Hancock</strong> (USA): Commanded a brigade during the Peninsula Campaign, 1862, and commanded a division at Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, 1862–1863. Commanded a corps at Gettysburg, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg, 1863–1864. Gave up command in November 1864. Presided over the execution of the Lincoln assassination conspirators in 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>P. Hill</strong> (CSA): Commanded a division during the Peninsula Campaign, Second Manassas (Bull Run), Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville, 1862–1863. Commanded a corps at Gettysburg, Wilderness, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg. Killed during the Union breakthrough on April 2, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>John B. Hood</strong> (CSA): Commanded a brigade during the Peninsula Campaign, 1862. Commanded a division at Second Manassas (Bull Run), Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg, 1862–1863. Commanded a corps at Chickamauga, 1863. Commanded a corps in the Army of Tennessee, 1864. Commanded the Army of Tennessee, 1864–1865. Relieved at own request in January 1865 after the Battles of Franklin and Nashville.</p>\n<p><strong>Joseph Hooker</strong> (USA): Commanded a division during the Peninsula Campaign and Second Manassas (Bull Run), 1862. Commanded a corps at Antietam and a Grand Division (corps) at Fredericksburg, 1862–1863. Commanded the Army of the Potomac at Chancellorsville, 1863. Relieved of command and transferred to the Western Theater. Commanded a corps in the Army of the Cumberland at Chattanooga and Atlanta. Relieved at own request in July 1864.</p>\n<p><strong>Thomas J. (Stonewall ) Jackson</strong> (CSA): Commanded a brigade at First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commanded Confederate forces in the Valley campaign and supported Lee in the Seven Days Battles, 1862. Commanded left wing of the Army of Northern Virginia at the Battles of Second Manassas (Bull Run) and Antietam, 1862. Commanded a corps at the Battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. Wounded at Chancellorsville May 2 and died May 10, 1863.</p>\n<p><strong>Andrew Johnson</strong> (USA): Governor of Tennessee, 1853–1857. U.S. Senator, 1857–1862. Military governor of Tennessee, 1862–1865. Elected vice president in 1864 and became president upon Lincoln’s death in April 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Albert Sidney Johnston</strong> (CSA): Commanded Western Department, 1861–1862. Commander of the Army of Mississippi at the Battle of Shiloh. Killed during the battle, April 6, 1862.</p>\n<p><strong>Joseph E. Johnston</strong> (CSA): Commander of the Army of the Valley, reinforcing Beauregard at First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commander of the Confederate army during a portion of the Peninsula Campaign. Wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines, 1862. Commander of the Department of the West, 1862–1863. Commander of the Army of Tennessee, 1863–1864. Relieved of command. Commander of Confederate forces in North Carolina, February–April 1865. Surrendered his army to General Sherman, April 26, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Robert E. Lee</strong> (CSA): Offered command of Union armies in April 1861. Resigns commission to take command of Virginia troops. Commander of Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, 1861–1862. Military advisor to President Jefferson Davis, March–June 1862. Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, 1862–1865. Named general-in-chief of the Confederate armies in February 1865. Surrenders the army to General Grant on April 9, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Abraham Lincoln</strong> (USA): Nominated for president and elected in 1860. Deals with Fort Sumter crisis in April 1861 that leads to war. Declares states in rebellion, calls for 75,000 volunteers, and orders a blockade of Confederate ports in April 1861. Issues the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. Delivers the Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863. Renominated for president and reelected in 1864. Gives Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865. Visits the Confederate capital of Richmond, April 4, 1865. Assassinated at Ford’s Theater, Washington, D.C., on April 14 and dies on April 15, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>James Longstreet</strong> (CSA): Commanded a brigade at First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commanded a division during the Peninsula Campaign and the left wing of the Army of Northern Virginia at the Battles of Second Manassas (Bull Run) and Antietam, 1862. Commanded a corps at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg, 1863. Commanded a corps as an attachment to the Army of Tennessee at the Battle of Chickamauga and at Knoxville, 1863. Returned to the Army of Northern Virginia, commanding his corps at the Battle of the Wilderness (where he was wounded), the siege of Petersburg, and was with Lee at Appomattox.</p>\n<p><strong>George B. McClellan</strong> (USA): Commander of the Department of the Ohio, 1861. General-in-chief of the Union armies, November 1861–July 1862. Commander of the Army of the Potomac, August 1861–November 1862. Relieved of command, November 1862. Democratic candidate for president, 1864.</p>\n<p><strong>Irvin McDowell</strong> (USA): Commander of the Union army at First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commanded a division and a corps in the Army of the Potomac, 1861–1862. Commanded the Army of the Rappahannock, April–June 1862. Commanded a corps in the Army of Virginia at the Battle of Second Manassas (Bull Run). Relieved of command, September 1862.</p>\n<p><strong>George G. Meade</strong> (USA): Commanded a brigade during the Peninsula Campaign and Second Manassas (Bull Run), 1862. Commanded a division at the Battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg, 1862. Commanded a corps at the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863, and became commander of the Army of the Potomac, June 1863 to April 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>John C. Pemberton</strong> (CSA): Commander of the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, 1862. Commander of the Department of Mississippi, Tennessee, and Louisiana, 1862–1863. Surrendered Confederate forces at Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. Resigned May 1864.</p>\n<p><strong>George E. Pickett</strong> (CSA): Commanded a brigade during the Peninsula Campaign, 1862. Commanded a division at the Battles of Fredericksburg, 1862, and Gettysburg (the famous “Pickett’s Charge”), 1863. Commanded the Department of Virginia and North Carolina, September 1863–May 1864. Commanded a division at the Battle of Cold Harbor and the siege of Petersburg, suffering a crushing defeat at Five Forks. Was relieved of command after the Battle of Sailor’s (Sayler’s) Creek, April 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>Leonidas Polk</strong> (CSA): Commanded Western Department, 1861. Commanded a corps at the Battle of Shiloh, 1862. Commanded the right wing of the Army of the Mississippi at the Battle of Perryville, 1862. Commanded a corps in the Army of Tennessee at the Battle of Murfreesboro (Stones River). Commanded the army’s right wing at the Battle of Chickamauga. Commanded a corps during the Atlanta campaign. Killed at Pine Mountain, Georgia, June 1864.</p>\n<p><strong>John Pope</strong> (USA): Commander of the Army of the Mississippi, 1862. Commander of the Army of Virginia at the Battle of Second Manassas (Bull Run). Commander of the Department of the Northwest, 1862–1865.</p>\n<p><strong>David Dixon Porter</strong> (USA): Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy, 1862–1863. Commanded the mortar fleet supporting Admiral Farragut’s attack on New Orleans, 1862. Commanded the Mississippi squadron in support of Grant’s operations against Vicksburg. Commanded the lower Mississippi fleet during the Red River campaign, 1864. Participated in the strategy meeting with President Lincoln on the <em>River Queen</em> at City Point, Virginia, on March 27, 1865. Commanded the squadron supporting the attack on Fort Fisher in 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>William S. Rosecrans</strong> (USA): Commanded the Army of the Mississippi at the Battles of Iuka and Corinth, 1862. Commanded the Army of the Cumberland at the Battles of Murfreesboro (Stones River) and Chickamauga, 1863. Relieved in October 1863.</p>\n<p><strong>Winfield Scott</strong> (USA): General-in-chief of the U.S. Army, 1841–1861. Developed the Anaconda Plan that became the blueprint for Union victory. Replaced by General McClellan in November 1861.</p>\n<p><strong>Philip H. Sheridan</strong> (USA): Commanded a division in the Army of the Ohio at the Battle of Perryville, 1862. Commanded a division in the Army of the Cumberland at the Battles of Murfreesboro (Stones River), Chickamauga, and Chattanooga, 1863. Commanded a cavalry corps with the Army of the Potomac at the Battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Five Forks, and Appomattox. Commanded the Army of the Shenandoah, August 1864–March 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>William T. Sherman</strong> (USA): Commanded a brigade at First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commanded the Department of the Cumberland, 1861. Commanded a division in the Army of the Tennessee at the Battles of Shiloh, 1862, and Vicksburg, 1863. Commanded the Army of the Tennessee at the Battle of Chattanooga, 1863. Commanded the Military Division of the Mississippi, March 1864–April 1865. Directed three Union armies across the lower South in the March to the Sea. Accepted Joseph E. Johnston’s surrender of his army on April 26, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>J.E.B. (JEB) Stuart</strong> (CSA): Commander of 1st Virginia Cavalry, Army of the Valley, at the Battle of First Manassas (Bull Run), 1861. Commander of the cavalry division (later corps) of the Army of Northern Virginia, 1862–1865. Commanded Jackson’s corps after Jackson’s wounding at the Battle of Chancellorsville, 1863. Wounded at Yellow Tavern, May 11, 1864, and died May 12.</p>\n<p><strong>Richard Taylor</strong> (CSA): Commanded a brigade during the Valley Campaign and during the Peninsula Campaign, 1862. Commander of District of Western Louisiana, defeated a Union attempt in 1864 to drive up the Red River to capture Shreveport and penetrate into Texas. Commander of Department of East Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, 1864–1865. Surrendered all of the Confederate forces under his command on May 4, 1865.</p>\n<p><strong>George H. Thomas</strong> (USA): Commanded a division in the Army of the Ohio in the Battle of Mill Springs, 1862, and was second in command of the Army of the Ohio at the Battle of Perryville. Commanded five divisions as the center commander at the Battle of Murfreesboro (Stones River), 1862. Commanded a corps at the Battle of Chickamauga, 1863. Commander of the Army of the Cumberland at the Battles of Chattanooga, Atlanta, Franklin, and Nashville, 1864–1865.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-01-11T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208923}],"_links":{"self":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672/categoryArticles?sortField=time&sortOrder=1&size=10&offset=0"},"next":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672/categoryArticles?sortField=time&sortOrder=1&size=10&offset=10"},"last":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33672/categoryArticles?sortField=time&sortOrder=1&size=10&offset=169"}}},"objectTitle":"","status":"success","pageType":"article-category","objectId":"33672","page":1,"sortField":"time","sortOrder":1,"categoriesIds":[],"articleTypes":[],"filterData":{"categoriesFilter":[{"itemId":0,"itemName":"All Categories","count":179}],"articleTypeFilter":[{"articleType":"All Types","count":179},{"articleType":"Articles","count":172},{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","count":6},{"articleType":"Step by Step","count":1}]},"filterDataLoadedStatus":"success","pageSize":10},"adsState":{"pageScripts":{"headers":{"timestamp":"2022-05-16T12:59:10+00:00"},"adsId":0,"data":{"scripts":[{"pages":["all"],"location":"header","script":"<!--Optimizely Script-->\r\n<script src=\"https://cdn.optimizely.com/js/10563184655.js\"></script>","enabled":false},{"pages":["all"],"location":"header","script":"<!-- comScore Tag -->\r\n<script>var _comscore = _comscore || [];_comscore.push({ c1: \"2\", c2: \"15097263\" });(function() {var s = document.createElement(\"script\"), el = document.getElementsByTagName(\"script\")[0]; s.async = true;s.src = (document.location.protocol == \"https:\" ? 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American Roe v. Wade and other Supreme Court decisions on abortion

Article / Updated 05-04-2022

This case has become the litmus test for confirmation to the U.S. Supreme Court bench. No judge who comes out openly against Roe v. Wade is likely to be confirmed. In Roe, the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that women have the right to an abortion, at least during the first trimester of pregnancy. The court characterized abortion as a “fundamental” constitutional right, which means that any law aiming to restrict it is subject to the standard of strict scrutiny. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1982), the high court modified Roe by giving the state the right to regulate an abortion, even in the first trimester, as long as that regulation doesn’t pose an “undue burden” on the woman’s fundamental right to an abortion. One such “undue burden” identified in Casey was any requirement for the woman to notify her husband. A Texas law that placed certain restrictions on abortion clinics in the state was struck down by the Supreme Court, in a 5–3 vote, as placing an “undue burden” on abortion rights in Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt (2016). In Stormans Inc. v. Wiesman (2016), a five-justice majority on the court refused to hear a challenge to a Washington state law making it illegal for pharmacists to refuse to dispense contraceptive drugs. In a dissent, Justice Samuel Alito, joined by Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Clarence Thomas, wrote: “This case is an ominous sign … If this is a sign of how religious liberty claims will be treated in the years ahead, those who value religious freedom have cause for great concern.” Roe v. Wade continues to be as controversial as it is important.

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American Roe v. Wade: How Abortion Became Legal in the United States

Article / Updated 05-04-2022

Roe versus Wade, better known as Roe v. Wade, is the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision that legalized abortion within the first two months of pregnancy. Up until then, individual state laws regulated abortions, thereby forcing women to illegal clinics or untrained practitioners. The lack of proper medical supervision in these situations was dangerous for the women. The roots of this case lie in Dallas, Texas, in 1969. At the time, obtaining or attempting an abortion was illegal in Texas, except in cases where the woman could die. Twenty-one-year-old Norma McCorvey was single and pregnant. Thinking that abortions were legal in cases of rape and incest, she tried to get an abortion by falsely claiming she was raped. But because there was no police report to prove it, she sought the alternative, an illegal abortion. Once again, her efforts failed — police had shut down the illegal clinic. Norma's next step was to find a lawyer to sue for the right to get an abortion. Two young attorneys named Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee, dedicated to women's advocacy, took Norma's case and dubbed their plaintiff "Jane Roe" to protect her identity. On March 3, 1970, Coffee filed a complaint, Roe v. Wade (later amended to a class-action suit), at the Dallas federal district courthouse, suing the State of Texas over the constitutionality over its abortion laws. Henry Wade was the defending district attorney. Roe won the case when the district court decided that the Texas laws were vague and infringed on the Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. The Ninth Amendment protects citizens' rights not listed in other parts of the Constitution, including the right to privacy. Norma's attorneys argued that this extended to a woman's right to decide to bear children or not. The Fourteenth Amendment ensures that no state can abridge a citizen's fundamental rights without due process. The case was appealed and landed in the U.S. Supreme Court. On January 22, 1973, the Court handed down its decision in favor of Roe, declaring: [The] right to privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the district court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy."[ The Supreme Court ruling didn't come in time for Norma McCorvey to have an abortion. She delivered a child even before the district court ruled in her favor in 1970; that child was immediately adopted. Roe v. Wade remains as polarizing as ever. Right-to-privacy proponents, anti-abortionists, religious groups, and women's rights advocates are just some of the organizations involved in this heated socio-political issue.

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American A Brief History of Father's Day

Article / Updated 05-04-2022

Father's Day, celebrated in the United States on the third Sunday of June, got a jump start from the formation of Mother's Day. Credit for beginning Father's Day celebrations is given to Sonora Smart Dodd from Spokane, Washington. At the turn of the century, Mother's Day observances were growing across the United States. The federal government had yet to recognize the holiday, but many states had adopted the third Sunday in May as a special celebration day honoring mothers. It was during a Mother's Day church service on June 20, 1909, that Sonora Smart Dodd was struck with the idea of creating a special holiday to honor fathers, too. When Sonora was 16, her mother died while giving birth to her sixth child, the last of five sons. Back then, like today, single parenthood was no easy task. By Sonoma's account, though, Mr. Smart did a wonderful job. Because of this love and esteem, Sonoma Smart Dodd believed that her father deserved a special time of honor just like that given to mothers on Mother's Day. In 1909, Sonoma Smart Dodd approached the Spokane YMCA and the Spokane Ministerial Alliance and suggested that her father's birthday — June 5 — become a celebration day for Father's Day. Because they wanted more time to prepare, the Ministerial Alliance chose June 19 instead. The first Father's Day was thus observed in the State of Washington on June 19, 1910. The idea of officially celebrating fatherhood spread quickly across the United States, as more and more states adopted the holiday. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge recognized Father's Day as the third Sunday in June of that year and encouraged states to do the same. Congress officially recognized Father's Day in 1956 with the passage of a joint resolution. Ten years later, in 1966, President Lyndon Johnson issued a proclamation calling for the third Sunday in June to be recognized as Father's Day. In 1972, President Richard Nixon permanently established the observance of the third Sunday in June as Father's Day in the United States. Sonora Smart Dodd lived to see her idea come to fruition. She died in 1978 at the ripe old age of 96.

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American Women's Suffrage: Fighting for the Right to Vote

Article / Updated 03-09-2022

Women's suffrage was a controversial subject as women's roles developed in society. By the time the twentieth century arrived, American feminists had been seeking the right to vote for more than 50 years. The suffrage movement was fanned even hotter in 1869, when African American males were given the right to vote through the Sixteenth Amendment, while women of all races were still excluded. One place where women were increasingly included was in the workplace. As the country shifted away from a rural, agrarian society to an industrial, urban one, more and more women had jobs — eight million by 1910. Moreover, they were getting better jobs. In 1870, 60 percent of working women were in domestic service. By 1920, it was only 20 percent, and women made up 13 percent of the professional ranks. Women were getting out of the house for more than just jobs, too. In 1892, membership in women’s clubs was about 100,000. By 1917, it was more than one million. And women’s increasing independence was reflected in the fact that the divorce rate rose from 1 in every 21 marriages in 1880 to 1 in 9 by 1916. Because women had always had nontraditional roles in the West, it wasn’t surprising that Western states and territories were the first to give females the right to vote: Wyoming in 1869, Utah in 1870, Washington in 1883, Colorado in 1893, and Idaho in 1896. By 1914, all the Western states except New Mexico had extended the voting franchise to women. By 1917, the suffrage movement was building momentum. In July of that year, a score of suffragists tried to storm the White House. They were arrested and taken to the county workhouse. President Woodrow Wilson was not amused, but sympathetic, and pardoned them. The next year, a constitutional amendment — the Nineteenth — was submitted to the states. When ratified in 1920, it gave women the right to vote in every state. Despite the significance of the Nineteenth Amendment, many leaders of the women’s movement recognized that the vote alone wouldn’t give women equal standing with men when it came to educational, economic, or legal rights. “Men are saying, perhaps, ‘thank God this everlasting women’s fight is over,’” said feminist leader Crystal Eastman after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified. “But women, if I know them, are saying, ‘now at last we can begin.’”

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American First Ladies For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-07-2022

This cheat sheet focuses on 50 key dates in the history of first ladies of the United States. These events mark the unique and continuing evolution of the office of First Lady and the first ladies themselves.

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American Facing Racism and Sexism: Black Women in America

Article / Updated 03-07-2022

From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, black women were in a difficult position. Between the civil rights and feminist movements, where did they fit in? They had been the backbone of the civil rights movement, but their contributions were deemphasized as black men — often emasculated by white society — felt compelled to adopt patriarchal roles. When black women flocked to the feminist movement, white women discriminated against them and devoted little attention to class issues that seriously affected black women, who tended to also be poor. Historically, black women have chosen race over gender concerns, a choice that was especially poignant during Reconstruction when African American female leaders, such as Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, supported the Fifteenth Amendment giving black men the right to vote over the objections of white women suffragists. Black women have a long feminist tradition dating back to 19th-century activists such as Maria W. Stewart and Sojourner Truth as well as organizations like the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) and the National Council of Negro Women, founded in 1896 and 1935, respectively. Events of the 1960s and 1970s, not to mention black men's changing attitudes regarding the role of black women, focused awareness around new concerns such as race, gender, and class, and several organizations attempted to address these issues: The ANC (Aid to Needy Children) Mothers Anonymous of Watts and the National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO): Johnnie Tillmon was an early pioneer of addressing the concerns of poor black women. A welfare mother living in Los Angeles's Nickerson Projects, Tillmon helped found ANC (Aid to Needy Children) Mothers Anonymous of Watts in 1963. She was later tapped to lead the National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO), founded in 1966. Through these organizations, Tillmon addressed such issues as equal pay for women, child care, and voter registration. Black Women's Liberation Committee (BWLC): Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) member Francis Beal was one of the founders of the Black Women's Liberation Committee (BWLC) in 1968. In 1969, Beal helped clarify the struggles of black women in the influential essay "Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female" that also appeared in the landmark 1970 anthology The Black Woman, which ushered in a new wave of black female writers. Beal identified capitalism as a key factor in the chasm between black men and women. During the early 1970s, the BWLC evolved into the Third World Women's Alliance. National Organization for Women (NOW): Reverend Dr. Anna Pauline (Pauli) Murray is a cofounder of the nation's most prominent feminist organization, the National Organization for Women (NOW), founded in 1966. The National Black Feminist Organization: While many black women remain active in mainstream feminist organizations only, other black women have created organizations aimed at addressing black women's unique concerns more effectively. The National Black Feminist Organization launched in 1973 with the specific goal of including black women of all ages, classes, and sexual orientation. Although it and similar organizations didn't outlive the 1970s, the legacy of black feminism lives on. In 1983, Alice Walker coined the term womanism, a feminist ideology that addresses the black woman's unique history of racial and gender oppression. Women such as Angela Davis; law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw; academics Patricia Hill Collins, Beverly Guy Sheftall, and Bell Hooks; and historians Darlene Clark Hine, Paula Giddings, and Deborah Gray White have greatly expanded the context in which black women and their history and activism are discussed by underscoring black women's issues related to race, gender, and class.

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American Women in the American Revolution

Article / Updated 03-07-2022

It is an inescapable fact that there were no “Founding Mothers,” at least not in the sense the term "Founding Fathers” is used to describe the male leaders of the American Revolution. No women served in Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, or helped draft the Articles of Confederation or US Constitution. While specifics varied from state to state and sometimes from community to community, women during this period generally had little legal standing. So tiny was their role in politics that even to suggest having a larger one was a subject of great humor — at least to men. When Abagail Adams wrote her husband John in 1776 to “remember the ladies” while drafting the fledgling country’s new government, he replied, “I cannot help but laugh. . . . Depend upon it. We know better than to repeal our Masculine systems.” To a colleague, however, John took a more serious, if just as chauvinistic, tone. Extending the right to vote too widely under the new government would open a Pandora’s box of universal demands: “There will be no End to It. New Claims will arise. Women will demand a Vote.” American revolutionary women labored on the home front Women could and did enter the political arena by writing letters, circulars, and tracts and helping to operate lines of communication and information. And as in all great wars, it fell to women to do everything but fight to keep things going. When Americans quit buying machine-made cloth from England, for example, American women had to make it by hand. “I rise with the sun and all through the long day I have no time for aught but my work,” wrote a Connecticut farmer’s wife whose husband was off to the war. Even during family prayer time, she admitted, her mind was on “whether Polly remembered to set the sponge for the bread, or put water in the leach tub or to turn the cloth in the dyeing vat. . .” Less specific but more important, women were expected, at least in Patriot families, to infuse the children with the spirit of representative democracy and the value of individual liberty. It was a task that historian Linda Kerber labeled “republican motherhood,” and political leaders urged Revolutionary-era men to remind their spouses of its importance. “Let their husbands point out the necessity of such conduct,” wrote Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina, “that it is the only thing that can save them and their children from distresses, slavery and disgrace…”. In addition to bearing the brunt of wartime shortages and other hardships, it also fell to women to bear the losses of men who would not come home from the fighting, as well as steeling themselves to send off their husbands and sons to war — or going themselves. Women near the battle front in the American Revolution A widowed Irish immigrant in South Carolina, Elizabeth Jackson lost two of her three sons to the war. She nonetheless volunteered to act as a nurse for wounded Americans held on British prison ships in Charleston Harbor. After contracting cholera, she summoned her remaining 15-year-old son, who had been fighting the British since he was 12 and bore the slash marks of a British officer’s sword to prove it. “Avoid quarrels if you can,” Andrew Jackson recalled his mother telling him before she died, “ . . . (but) if you ever have to vindicate your honor, do it calmly.” Women often served as nurses, cooks, seamstresses, and laundresses to the various militias and Continental Army. General Washington wasn’t keen on the practice, since the women had to be fed precious rations. And, try as he might with repeated orders to the contrary, they often hitched rides in supply wagons, thus slowing things down. But since his own wife Martha often traveled with him, Washington did not order his commanders to ban women entirely from the army camps. If they didn’t tag along with their husbands, sons, and brothers, women might make uniforms, gather food, or perform other tasks for the troops. One group of three dozen Philadelphia residents were so persistent in raising funds for the army, a Loyalist complained “people were obliged to give them something to get rid of them.” They ultimately raised the staggering modern-day equivalent of $300,000. “Necessity,” a Revolutionary War woman recalled in 1810, “taught us to make exertions which our girls of the present day know nothing of.”

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American US History For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-23-2022

US history is as complex and fascinating as the people who populate the country. A timeline of significant events in the life of the United States of America starts with hunters crossing the Bering Strait, through the fight for independence, and to the election of 44 men to serve as president. The election of the 43rd, Barack Obama, is of historical significance in itself as he was the first African American president.

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American US Constitution For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 01-27-2022

The US Constitution was written and signed by men who craved independence from Britain but who were nonetheless steeped in its history and ideals. The document starts with some basic precepts of English governance, but then adds some uniquely American twists — three branches of government that act to check and balance each other, for example. Although much thought went into the Constitution, the framers left it open to amendment. The first ten amendments were ratified just four years after the Constitution itself and are known as the Bill of Rights.

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American The American Civil War For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 01-12-2022

The American Civil War encompasses a vast number of political, social, and military events. This cheat sheet outlines the concepts required to understand the civil war, as well as the key political events leading to the war, the major events of the war, and the people who played key roles.

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