Language & Language Arts Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 09-13-2023

Keep this Cheat Sheet handy as you're learning French. It's a great quick reference when you need to check definite, indefinite, and partitive articles; personal pronouns, identify être verbs, and need help with other particulars of French grammar.

Article / Updated 09-07-2023

When you’re eating out at a Spanish-speaking restaurant, knowing some basic Spanish vocabulary can make the ordering process a little easier. Placing your order basically consists of two parts: ordering a beverage and ordering food. But first you need to get the attention of your server. Calling a waiter over to your table If your waiter is a man, the appropriate way to address him depends on where you are. A waiter in Argentina is a mozo (moh-soh) or “young man.” But, calling someone mozo in Chile is offensive. In Chile, you say, garzón (gahr-sohn), which is derived from the French word for “young man.” If you call the waiter by either of these terms in Mexico, he may not react. You can better get his attention by saying joven (Hoh-bvehn), meaning “young,” even if he isn’t so young. In Spain, a waiter is a camarero (kah-mah-reh-roh). When a woman is serving you, call her simply señorita (seh-nyoh-ree-tah), meaning “Miss,” no matter where you are. Ordering a beverage Credit: PhotoDisc, Inc. Many people like to order an aperitif, or cocktail, before dinner. One popular local liquor is aguardiente (ah-gooahr-deeehn-teh), which translates as “fire water,” and is made out of grapes, tequila (teh-kee-lah), and mezcal (mehs-kahl). In Chile and Peru, people like “pisco (pees-koh) sour,” a cocktail made with pisco (another liquor made from grapes), sugar, and lemon juice. Agua (ah-gooah) in Mexico can mean “water,” which is its exact translation, but it can also be a beverage made with water, fruit, and sugar. All fruits, and even some vegetables, make refreshing aguas. In Chile, aguita (ah-goo-ee-tah), meaning “little water,” can be an herb tea served after a meal. Following are a few more phrases you may hear or want to use when ordering beverages: Escoger un vino (ehs-koh-Hehr oon bvee-noh) (choose a wine) ¡Salud! (sah-lood) (Cheers!) Tomar un refresco (toh-mahr oon reh-frehs-koh) (drink a soda pop) Tomar un trago (toh-mahr oon trah-goh) (have a drink [alcoholic]) Un vaso de agua (oon bvah-soh deh ah-gooah) (a glass of water) Un vaso de leche (oon bvah-soh deh leh-cheh) (a glass of milk) Ordering a main course In order to make a selection, you may want to ask questions about various dishes on the menu. Here are a few helpful phrases: ¿Qué nos recomienda? (keh nohs reh-koh-meeehn-dah) (What do you suggest?) ¿Con qué está servido? (kohn keh ehs-tah sehr-bvee-doh) (What does it come with?) ¿Qué ingredientes tiene? (keh een-greh-dee ehn-tehs tee eh-neh) (What are the ingredients?) ¿Qué más trae el plato? (keh mahs trah-eh ehl plah-toh) (What else is in the dish?) Your server may have occasion to use the following phrases: ¿Están listos para ordenar? (ehs-tahn lees-tohs pah-rah ohr-deh-nahr) (Are you ready to order?) Está caliente. (ehs-tah kah-lee ehn-teh) (It’s hot [temperature].) Está picante. (ehs-tah pee-kahn-teh) (It’s hot [flavor/spicy].) Está frío. (ehs-tah freeoh) (It’s cold.) Lamento, no tenemos . . . (lah-mehn-toh noh teh-neh-mohs) (Sorry, we don’t have any . . .)

Cheat Sheet / Updated 09-06-2023

Do you want to be the next best-selling author and dream up a new iconic character? Follow this handy Cheat Sheet, which breaks down the creative writing process into manageable tasks and helps you to develop your writing style and become a confident and accomplished writer.

Article / Updated 08-16-2023

The essay is to college writing what books are to educated people, what professors are to college teaching, and what wireless is to technology — they’re inseparable. The essay has been a major part of students’ academic life for more than 15 centuries. With such a storied history, the essay requirement isn’t likely to disappear before you graduate, which is why it's important to know how to start an essay. News flash. Your professor, a human being afflicted with a lifetime addiction to reading, determines your essay grade. As much as you’ve been told about the importance of writing for your audience, your professors are the one member of your audience you need to please. And because professors are sophisticated readers, they value writing that contains a skillfully created opening and closing. Engaging openings and closings, the intersection of academic and professional writing, offer you the opportunity to impress your professor and stand out among your peers. When you undervalue the importance of an enticing opening and closing, you’re leaving points on the page. Here I focus on what you need to know about writing openings, including the first few sentences and the title. To learn how to write an excellent closing to your essay, and about all other aspects of college writing, check out my book College Writing For Dummies. Standing out Let the gains begin. As a professor who read and graded tens of thousands of essays and research papers, I’m thrilled to see a thoughtful opening that interests me as a consumer of content. My grading experience tells me to anticipate an excellent grade and read the remainder of the essay to justify that grade. When you're thinking about how to start off an essay, remember that the purpose of your opening includes the following: Engage your reader in the topic and establish the organizational structure of your essay. Convince your reader of the importance of your topic and raise reader questions about the topic. Clarify your position on the topic question, using language from the assignment sheet. Highlight your overall essay plan. Demonstrate your command of language. The opening transports your reader from the symbolic representation of your topic to the specific promise of your thesis — the last sentence in your opening. The structure of the opening progresses from general to specific information, from the abstract hook to the concrete thesis. Your investment in a strong opening yields high returns on your essay grade. As you're thinking about how to start your essay introduction, avoid experimenting with a delayed thesis, such as positioning the thesis in the closing. Avoid this until you regularly write A-graded college essays. When you read leisurely, focus on openings and closings that attract your attention. If you want to be nerdy about it, ask Siri to file them. And when you’re ready to write your openings and closings, consider re-engineering a favorite one you saved. While your opening provides background to place your topic within context, college essays usually require a background paragraph following the opening paragraph. Be sure all background content is related to the thesis, not merely to the topic. Including an anecdote Among the solid ways to start an essay is a go-to opening taught by many professors: the anecdote. It's brief personal experience story. You can use anecdotes in a wide variety of ways, such as: Connect a different personal experience to each essay you’re assigned. Exercise your poetic license by writing an anecdote about an experience that happened to someone else. Write a fictional anecdote that appears believable if you’re feeling especially creative. Use one as a piece of evidence in the essay body. The more you use them, the better your skills at developing them. Use one as a style tool. Anecdotes are the gift that keep giving. Following, I focus on what to include when writing anecdotes and how you can capture your reader’s attention. What to include in an anecdote Anecdotes are scenes, not narratives with a beginning, middle, and ending. They range between five and six sentences within essays between 600 to 650 words. They aren’t the recount of an experience from beginning to end. Strategies for writing anecdotes include the following: Name relevant people, places, and events. Identify relevant time references. Consider a twist or surprise ending. Add brief dialogue when appropriate. Brainstorm your anecdote similar to how you brainstorm your essay. Reference conclusions from your anecdote that apply to your essay’s thesis. Anecdotes are successful only when the experience connects with the essay topic. For example, an anecdote that tells a story about never quitting in athletics can be applied to an essay about never quitting in a challenging course. Grabbing your reader’s attention Similar to opening an essay, begin an anecdote with an attention-attracting first sentence. Following, are examples of language for beginning your anecdote and setting the scene: When I visited Alaska, I experienced the highlight of my travel experience — walking on a glacier. I will never forget the desperation on animals' faces when I volunteered at the center for abused animals. Some of the most memorable lessons I learned in middle school occurred outside the classroom on camping trips. I hide emotions well, but holding tears failed me when I recognized the name on the post. Consider this opening anecdote: I boarded the helicopter from the heliport in Juneau, Alaska — aware that one crashed in recent weeks — anticipating the experience of flying above an ice field, landing on the Mendenhall Glacier, and walking across frozen tundra, thousands of years old. I walked to the edge of crevasses, looking down hundreds of feet at the flow of blue glacier water. I witnessed the excitement of one of nature’s unique performances. But on the helicopter flight back to Juneau, nature offered one additional surprise that changed my comfort level with nature’s majesty. Using additional openings strategies When you're thinking about how to start an introduction for an essay, consider these other opening strategies: Series of questions: Many professors consider a one question opening a cliché strategy common to high school writing. But a series of questions raises the curiosity level and raises even more questions. Here’s a sample from my column reviewing Choke by Sian Beilock (Delco News Network): What’s the cause of high-performing students underperforming on a high-stakes standardized test such as the SAT and GRE (Graduate Record Examination)? What’s the cause of a professional athlete underperforming on a game-winning play or a pressure putt? Do underperforming students and athletes share common characteristics for their “choke”? What if? picture this: Another opening is the hypothetical “What if?” which raises questions and curiosities. Here’s a sample on a topic that interests you: What if colleges accepted more responsibility for ensuring graduation for the students they accept? What if their accountability included partial refunds of tuition and student loans for students who drop out? What if colleges fulfilled the promises to students and their parents made during freshmen orientation? In addition to the previous opening strategies, openings also include the importance of the topic, the approach to the assignment, your position on the topic, and the thesis. Steer clear of these types of openings Here’s a look at openings as unappealing as a broken popsicle: Previewing your intentions for the essay, such as what you plan to cover A dictionary or encyclopedia definition of the topic Restating the topic Presenting an overview of the topic An all-encompassing phrase such as: “Since the dawn of time …” Quotations that suddenly appear in text without context or follow up When I read these openings as a professor, I thought no effort, no thought, and no good. Focusing on the first sentences Are you surprised to hear that some professors will stereotype you as a student? Your professor’s assessment of your grade begins the first day of class with behaviors such as: Arriving early and introducing yourself Sitting in the front row and assuming an academic position Actively participating in class discussions and taking notes Saying thank you on the way out of class Your professor will also stereotype you by a strong opening of your essay, especially the first sentence. Unlike professional writers, inexperienced writers rarely prioritize first sentences and openings. Professional writers quickly learn that their most important sentence is the first because editors frequently buy or reject a piece of writing based on the reader connection of the first sentence. A lackluster title, first sentence, and opening won’t cost you money as a first-year student, but it can cost you a scoring opportunity. Here’s a look at a few first-sentence strategies that will engage your reader, impress your professor, and score the grade (you can easily develop these first-sentence strategies into opening strategies): Surprise information: Readers enjoy a surprise. When the first-sentence surprise raises curiosity and questions, you have the ingredients for an engaging opening. Here’s a sample: Sleep researchers studying mice observed that the brain’s synapses, message connectors, surprisingly decrease about 20 percent after a few hours’ sleep. But they also discovered that the reduction makes you smarter. The second sentence (But they also …) shows a sentence that transitions into the thesis. Chapter 6 details more information about thesis statements. Expert quotations: Opening an essay with a quotation by an expert interests the most sophisticated readers, including your professor. Here’s an example: “Progress is made by trial and failure, the failures are generally a hundred times more numerous than the successes; yet they are usually left unchronicled,” said renowned chemist William Ramsey (1852–1916). Ramsey was referencing science, but his advice applies beyond science and into everyday life, including writing. The second sentence (Ramsey was referencing …) also shows a sentence that transitions into the thesis. Essential content connection: What is the most emotional part of your essay? For example, if your essay’s about the college dropout rate, play the emotional card by opening with a sentence describing what a college degree means to you and your family. Here’s a sample: I dreamed of my college graduation since my first day of school, but I didn’t dream of its financial and emotional toll on my family. When your first sentence connects with your readers, you’re set up to deliver your second sentence and the remainder of your opening. Midway through your opening, your professor formulates a projection of your grade. Capitalize on the opportunity to impress your professor with a high-interest opening, and remember that good openings generate good grades.

Article / Updated 08-07-2023

What better way to enjoy what you are going to eat than to start with an empty stomach. Then you can say, "J'ai faim" (zheh fan) (I'm hungry) or "J'ai soif" (zheh swaf) (I'm thirsty), and the glorious world of French gastronomy is yours! French food is probably the most famous and the most praised in the world. And you don't have to go to Paris to enjoy it. In the United States, French restaurants and specialty food shops are often very expensive. But just across the border, you can find total satisfaction at reasonable prices in Montreal. In the United States, people eat breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Wouldn't it be simple if only three words designated les repas (lay ruh-pah) (the meals) in all French-speaking countries? Well, it simply isn't so. Québec has kept some of the seventeenth-century French of its first settlers and uses the words that were used then (as do the people in some parts of the French countryside): The word for "breakfast" is: le déjeuner (luh day-zhuh-nay) in Québec le petit déjeuner (luh puh-tee day-zhuh-nay) in France Le déjeuner (in Québec) is probably a remnant from the days when farm workers ate a big hearty meal in early morning, another big meal at midday, and only hot soup with bread at the end of the day. Then breakfast was more a déjeuner (meal) than a petit déjeuner (little meal). Also, the Quebecois are North Americans and thus more used to a big breakfast than the French are. So, if you're meeting someone for le déjeuner in Montreal, don't wait until lunch time! Unless your hosts invited your for le brunch — no explanation necessary, right? — they won't be expecting you. The word for "lunch" is: le dîner (luh dee-nay) in Québec le déjeuner (luh day-zhuh-nay) in France The word for "dinner" is: le souper (luh soo-pay) in Québec le dîner (luh dee-nay) in France These nouns are also verbs; to have lunch or dinner is déjeuner, dîner, or souper. After coming home from school, children enjoy le goûter (luh goo-tay) (mid-afternoon snack), which usually consists of bread and butter, jam, or chocolate. If you suddenly find yourself hungry between meals, you can always have un casse-croûte (kahs-kroot) (a snack, literally: break the crust) like a crêpe at a stand in Paris, a hot dog sold by a street vendor in Montreal, or anything in between. Even out in the middle of the country, you may be lucky enough to find a café where you can get une omelette (ew-nom-leht) (an omelet) or un sandwich (aN sahn-dweesh) (a sandwich). A note about breakfast As we mention earlier, a Canadian breakfast looks much like its American or British counterpart. The French breakfast, on the other hand, is more like what hotels call a continental breakfast. Many French don't even eat the famous croissant (krwa-sahN) with their morning coffee; they're often satisfied with just a quick espresso before boarding the train or the subway. Nowadays, like North American children, many French children have cereal and milk, les céréales et le lait (lay say-ray-ah-lay luh lay) for breakfast. Still, the traditional French breakfast is usually made up of the following: le café (luh kah-fay) (coffee) le café au lait (luh kah-fay o leh) (coffee with hot milk) le café crème (luh kah-fay crehm) (coffee with a little milk) le thé nature (luh tay nah-tewr) (plain tea) le thé au lait (luh tay o leh) (tea with milk) le thé au citron/le thé citron (luh tay o see-trohn/luh tay see-trohn) (tea with lemon) le pain (luh pahN) (bread) le pain grillé (luh pahN gree-yay) (toast) les tartines (lay tahr-teen) (slices of bread with some kind of spread) le beurre (luh buhr) (butter) la margarine (lah mahr-zhah-reen) (margarine), not as popular as butter but used nevertheless la confiture (lah kohn-fee-tewr) (jam) le croissant (luh krwa-sahN) (croissant — crescent-shaped) le pain au chocolat (luh pan o sho-ko-lah) (same dough as a croissant, but a different shape and with a chocolate bar inside) le chausson aux pommes (luh sho-sohN o pohm) (applesauce-filled danish) le pain aux raisins (luh pahN o ray-zan) (a sort of raisin bread) You can find all of these mouth-watering goodies in any pâtisserie (pah-tees-ree) (confectioner's shop) or boulangerie (boo-lahn-zhree) (bakery) throughout France. If you aren't sure what something is, you can always simply point to it in the window and be delightfully surprised at whatever delicious confection you discover! A note about lunch Until the mid-1960s, lunch was the big meal of the day in France. Fathers came home from work and children came home from school to sit to a four- or five-course meal prepared by the mother. After a two-hour break, everybody went back to their activities. Children still have a two-hour break from lunch, and many of them still go home. But with many women working outside the house, most active people spend much less time on their lunch break and don't have time to come home. They also eat more lightly at midday.

Article / Updated 08-04-2023

Your success in college has depended on problem-solving and figuring out how to navigate the academic maze. For example, you’ve successfully learned to register online, interpret syllabi, find your way around campus, and communicate with your professors. An additional requirement for your academic success is evaluating the credibility of sources you find to support your argument in your research paper. Without good evidence for your paper, you will lack a good argument. This article explains criteria for evaluating sources you research and identifying the sources that please your professor. I also examine using Wikipedia as a starting point — but not as an ending point. How to evaluate sources for credibility You can’t prepare a good meal with bad ingredients, and you can’t enjoy good takeout without reliable delivery. Similarly, the strength of your academic entrée, your argument, is based on quality source ingredients and reliable evidence. The source evaluation process starts when you begin searching — and if you begin with library databases and similar sources, you’re as good as getting measured for your cap and gown. Many searches expedite the source evaluation process by including filters for publication dates, peer-reviewed materials, and full-text articles. If you’re using library resources, the following guidelines are a review. If you’re using the open Internet or academic search engine resources, the guidelines are a necessity. Here’s a look at guidelines for evaluating sources your professors expect: Currency: Review your assignment for professor restrictions on dates of sources. Publication dates are relevant to your topic, especially current topics. Academic search engines usually contain more current sources than databases. Age matters when selecting sources. For example, current topics (technology and current events) need current sources. Literary topics (classic literature and art) may be supported with eight-to-ten-year-old sources. Verification of the publication date answers the question: When was the source published and does the data have relevance to the topic? Credibility: Author credibility includes demonstrating knowledge on the topic as well as being truthful, objective, and ethical. Credible authors are usually affiliated with credible institutions. Further investigate sources you’re unfamiliar with. Author credibility also includes the author citing similar credible authors and answers the question: Does the author demonstrate the credibility that’s necessary for the success of the paper? Accuracy: Read a few paragraphs in the middle of the text and determine the accuracy of information. Ideas should appear academic, documented, and well supported. Information accuracy answers the question: Is information accurate and presented fairly, and does it fulfill the purpose of the paper? Writing: Authors of scholarly sources should write like scholars. If they don’t, question their credibility — and also question the credibility of the source because scholarly journals are professionally edited. Validity of the author’s writing style answers the question: Is the information written in a scholarly documented style that contributes to understanding ideas in the source? Relevance: Even though your source information may check all boxes, it’s useless to you if it lacks relevance answering your research questions. The relevance of information answers the question: Does the information contribute to the argument of the paper? If you’re using library databases, almost all sources have been vetted for accuracy and credibility of information. Use database sources as models for what to expect from other sources. Analyzing websites as sources for research paper Many websites lack the vetting and quality control of databases and many academic search engines. Although most criteria for evaluating sources also apply to websites, one significant criteria of evaluating a source remains: the eye test or appearance of the website. Here are questions to ask to evaluate the appearance of websites: Is it regularly maintained and updated? Are links relevant and functional? Does it appear professional and express an academic tone (see tone in Chapter 10)? Does it contain an academic, noncommercial extension such as .org, .gov, or .edu? Does the text avoid promotion of outlier claims such as the 9-11 attack on America never occurred? Is ownership of the website identified and credible? Is information supported with cited sources and active links to those sources? Is information sponsored by an organization with an unbiased interest in beliefs expressed? Studies show that students lack evaluation skills to distinguish between factual sites and fictional sites. Critically evaluate every website you search. Avoiding sources displeasing to professors Evaluating sources is critical to the source selection process and to ensuring academic evidence that supports your argument. Look at your source choices this way: You have about 12 to 15 source opportunities in a research paper to impress your professor. Why choose a nonscholarly questionable source that displeases your professor? Why chose Wikipedia when you’re also likely to find a scholarly library database (refer to the next section for more about Wikipedia)? When you evaluate a source, you definitely want to avoid ones that your professors generally dislike. Use these criteria for avoiding sources: Articles from nonscholarly popular magazines Definitions from general dictionaries References from your textbook References from some self-published books Unscholarly blogs, websites, and social media Information-sharing sites that include open editing Biased, unethical, and nonmainstream sources Reckoning with Wikipedia Since its inception in 2001, Wikipedia may be the most controversial research source among professors in college classrooms. The issue is that information is edited by a community of volunteers — meaning the information lacks clear accountability. It’s like not having the adult in charge in the room. My suggestion as a professor is to use Wikipedia (and sometimes AI) as background reading and fact check information before considering it. I prefer not to see Wikipedia in a citation in a college course because it doesn’t show much skill as a researcher. It requires as much effort as enjoying a sunset on Clearwater Beach. Clarify with professors their approval or disapproval of Wikipedia. Like all matters of authority in higher education, professors’ word is as final as your final course grade. Uncovering stones: Foundations of evidence You may have learned that when you’re looking for the truth you should go directly to the source. But did you ever learn what to do at the source when you arrive there? The following sections show you how to convert sources into evidence and make meaning — when you get to the source. Reading for determining evidence Reading is not only fundamental to your education, but it’s also fundamental to converting your sources into evidence. Making meaning from your sources begins with skimming for evidence to evaluate usefulness of the source. In other words, read for information that answers your research questions and supports your argument. Here are some skimming strategies you can use for initial source evaluation: Read large print. Survey the field of material by reading the title, major headings, and pullouts. Skim supplemental sections such as abstracts and appendices. Identify headings related to your argument. Read subheadings. Read subheadings in the middle sections that connect to your purpose and look for cited sources in subheadings related to your thesis. Get graphic. Identify graphic organizers (bullets, numbers, letters, and steps) that connect with your purpose. Review the thesis and evidence. Determine if the thesis and argument show a connection with your questions. Accept or reject. If the source shows value for your research, annotate and take notes as described in the sections that follow. For much more on how to tackle a college research paper, including the details on all of the phases involved, check out my book College Research Papers For Dummies. Reading journal articles Recall your first day on campus, trying to locate buildings where your classes were held. But after a few days, your quickly figured out the paths and eventually the shortcuts to arrive at class on time. Reading most journal articles requires similar practice to become familiar with a unique style of reading. Here’s the point about journal articles: You read scholarly articles for the purpose of answering your research question and acquiring information you can apply to your research. You’re looking for the thesis the author’s arguing and the connection between the author’s evidence and your argument. As you read, you’re deciding on the article’s value as evidence, background information, or new insights on your topic. Preparation for reading a journal article begins with studying your research question and identifying the information you’re looking for. Reading journal articles also familiarizes you with research writing and organizational structure. Here’s a plan for reading scholarly articles: Skim the complete article. Skim the article. Look for headings that identify major sections such as abstract, introduction, statement of the problem, review of literature, and so forth. Look for author authority and affiliation as identified in the beginning of this section. As you read, add to your list of key terms. Read the abstract. From the summary of the article in the abstract, identify the thesis, argument, and the importance of the topic. Identify the audience. Journal articles are written for the academic audience, and college undergraduates can consume most articles. But some journal articles are written for professional scholars whose reading background surpasses that of some undergraduates. If the topic is too complex and requires a technical background, give it your best effort and move to another article. Some scholars write exclusively to an audience of other professional scholars. Read the conclusion. Reading the conclusion helps you understand the argument and its implications. Look for analysis and synthesis and points you may want to support and defend in your argument. Look in the conclusion for the greater application of the topic. What does the article add to the knowledge of the topic being studied? Read the introduction. Look for background information in the introduction that adds to your understanding of the topic. Locate the thesis near the end of the introduction. Create a research question that the article answers. Read the review of literature. The review of literature may appear as a separate heading or as a text discussion in the introduction. Literature reviews represent one of your best sources for identifying new evidence to support your argument. A review of literature includes analysis and synthesis of sources (see Chapter 9). Read the discussion. The discussion (found in the body or middle section) illustrates the evidence that supports the argument. Look for evidence and sources that may apply to your research. Read citations and references. Dedicate a reading to studying citations and references. Note the authors and publications of sources and file them as potential evidence for your research. Identify the argument. Journal articles are academic arguments. Evaluate each argument’s importance and application to your research.

Article / Updated 08-03-2023

Congratulations on earning your college admission. You’ve successfully fulfilled the requirements for 12 years of school, and you’re entering a world that defies the math you’ve learned. Grade 12 isn’t followed by Grade 13. It’s followed by an opportunity to change your life and your family’s life, and it begins with your first-year writing in college. You can become one of almost a third of adults who earn college degrees. But capitalizing on that opportunity will require an academic commitment that exceeds your efforts in the past. Your immediate challenge requires conquering your college writing class and/or writing college essays in other classes, challenges that destroys the dreams of almost 40 percent of first-year students who never become sophomores. What to expect in your college writing course Your admission to college entitles you to a classroom seat — anywhere in the classroom you choose to sit. You’ll also receive a syllabus — your last reminder of assignments due throughout the semester. A syllabus is a contract between you and your professor. On your first day of college class, you’ll recognize that you’re no longer in high school and your class size is most likely smaller than high school. Take a look around the room, and you’ll see unfamiliar people who feel equally uncomfortable. You may feel similar to how you felt the first day in first grade, but you now have your cell phone for security. The following sections identify what practices from high school English you won’t expect to happen in college writing, including a comparison to your college writing class. You can also find information about what your professor will (and won’t) do. College-level writing is not like your high school English class Here are practices common to your high school English class that you’ll no longer experience in your college classroom: Daily reminders: Your high school teachers saw you daily and reminded you of upcoming assignments. Your college syllabus is your one-time reminder of everything due for the semester. Flexible deadlines: High school deadlines for essays, text, and projects are carved in sand. College deadlines indelibly recorded in your syllabus are changed as often as a harvest moon during leap year. Grading with pity points: College grades are based exclusively on academic performance with no consideration of how well you organized the community-wide blood drive or how many times you were student of the month. Five-days-a-week classes: College writing classes generally meet for 75 minutes twice a week, maybe 50 minutes three times a week. Your college study day begins after classes end. Class interruptions: You won’t miss in-class announcements, calls to the office, late arrivals and early dismissals, assemblies, abbreviated schedules, and knocks on the door. Classes are the business of college, and the business is life-altering. Regular testing: High school tests provide numerous opportunities to stabilize grades and raise grades over a period of time. College courses commonly include three or four graded assignments, each one covering four times the content of your high school tests. Unaccountable readings: High school reading assignments frequently get lost in the wilderness and disappear from being required. College reading assignments have multiple lives, recurring in tests, writing assignments, class discussions, and final exams. The table below compares some other areas so you can see how high school and college writing classes differ. Differentiating High School and College Writing High School College Assignments Essays and research papers Essays, research papers, reaction papers, reports, reviews of literature, and media presentations Discipline Primarily English class Across disciplines Evidence Opinions and limited research Primary and secondary sources, surveys, and observations Length 400 to 500 words 650 to 700 words Revision Submitted as one daft Submission process includes multi-drafts. Drafts and feedback usually required to be submitted with portfolio Thesis Broad thesis adaptable to multiple sources of supporting information A thesis that identifies an arguable issue related to the assigned question You’ll never appreciate your high school teachers as much as you will when you walk into your first college class with the excitement of “Where do I start?” and walk out with the confusion of “How do I start?” Identifying what you're responsible for Growing up isn’t easy, and you’ve been longing for your independence since you first crossed the street alone. Congratulations, you’re a fully responsible adult with some, not nearly all, of the obligations. You were most likely a very responsible high school student, but more than likely you had a family support system that included providing food, shelter, and some clothing. Your responsibility will be tested in college as you exercise your new independence. Here’s a look at some of your new responsibilities as college student for all your courses, not just college writing: Attend all classes. Attending class is your number one priority as a college student. Professors design classes to follow a logical sequence and academic rhythm. When you miss a class, you break the rhythm. Classes are to college what the Internet is to your social life. Attending class also means arriving at least five minutes early and not leaving early or abusing restroom needs. You don’t want your professor to associate your name with arrival and departure times. You’re expected to remain grounded during class time. Plan for your success. Start planning completion of your degree by scheduling a meeting with your academic advisor to anticipate courses your first two years of college. You may not know your major, but you should determine a general field of study such as humanities, sciences, business, communications, and so forth. Familiarize yourself with campus resources. During the first week of school, search your school’s website to determine locations and contact information for resources such as health services, writing center, career planning, academic skills center, recreation center, and public safety. Meet deadlines. Responsible people meet deadlines, sometimes a day early. Missing deadlines is the second easiest way to destroy your college dreams; missing classes and assignments is the first way. Stay healthy. A healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, provides the stamina to meet the physical demands of classes and study. It’s sometimes described as a strong mind through a strong body. Begin career planning. Almost every college campus has a career planning center. They guide you through career interest planning, resume building, and interview preparation. You will learn life-altering information such as the workplace has no spring break and you have no cut days. Remember: College professors are nonnegotiable You learned which teachers in high school you could manipulate for hall passes, assignment extensions, or full class discussions of your favorite music. That was high school. Save your negotiating skills for your career. Professors don’t negotiate with terrorists or students. They only negotiate with their supervisors. Your high school teachers and college professors are as different as synchronized swimming and ballroom dancing. Therefore, you face a greater chance of drowning in a college class. Everyone has other courses and responsibilities High school students regularly complain to their teachers that they’re overwhelmed with work from other classes and that multiple tests fall on similar days. Say goodbye to the fantasy high school world and hello to the grown-up world where people you’re responsible to expect you to fulfill your obligations. As a first-year college student, you’re at the bottom of the food chain and responsible to everyone. Everyday responsible adults fulfill work responsibilities with family members sick at home, transportation problems, relationship issues, financial complications, personal health concerns — and many more serious issues. That’s the standard for responsible adults. Successful college students are adults who find a way to fulfill their responsibilities and utilize resources available when they need help. High school students shed their training wheels when they enter college. Older nontraditional students already learned to manage complex adult lifestyles that include full-time employment and full-time family responsibilities. Debunking writing myths When first-year-college students become seniors, they thrive on telling composition course stories, such as being assigned to read James Michener’s 868-page Alaska and write a 5,000-word reaction paper over the weekend. The Michener assignment exemplifies a myth associated with first-year writing. Here’s a look at other myths and their realities. Myth No. 1: My professor doesn’t like my writing style Professors don’t evaluate first-year writing primarily on style unless your interpretation of style includes faulty sentence structure, unintended fragments, inactive and weak verbs, vague nouns, and long sentences with delayed subjects and verbs. If that last sentence sounds like your style, your professor is correct and your writing needs a new wardrobe. As a general rule, when it comes to college essay writing and research papers, etc., professors accept any style that includes clear and somewhat concise writing. If you think a professor doesn’t like your style, talk with your professor to clarify the meaning of “writing style,” what the professor dislikes about the writing, and how you can fix it. Myth No. 2: Writing is just too darn hard Writing a college essay, and other writing assignments, are difficult. But some students make them more difficult by not following what research shows are best practices for successful college writing. You’ve designed a plan to fail if you start writing assignments late, neglect to analyze the assignment, skip background reading and planning, and start to take the essay seriously two days before deadline. That approach is like typing your assignment on your phone wearing mittens. You can make writing easier by following the process of writing: prewriting, drafting, revising, and preparing for presentation. For the details on each of the prewriting, drafting, revising, and preparing for presentation phases, check out my book College Writing For Dummies. Writing doesn’t come easy for most people, including most professional writers. But writing isn’t an insurmountable task that only a few can master. Most people learn to write by following the practices of good writing, one of which is commitment. But it will never be as easy as skills you’re more interested in and more motivated to learn. Myth No. 3: Only problem writers need feedback All writers need feedback to tell them what works and what doesn’t work. Classroom instructors at all levels provide opportunities for feedback. The rejections of the classic books was feedback that told the authors their books needed revising. Feedback is to writing what ice is to learning to skate. You can’t move forward without it. Myth No. 4: I suffer from writer's block Picture this. You and your significant other are enjoying a romantic dinner at your favorite restaurant. You’re waiting patiently for your dinner as your server appears at your table and says: “I’m sorry we can’t serve you dinner. The chef is experiencing culinary block.” Being blocked, or the inability to perform creativity, has been attributed exclusively to the art of writing. Electricians, teachers, chefs, pilots, and so forth don’t experience suffering from the block. Writers and creative innovators experience regular challenges that are addressed with problem solving and decision making. You can always do something to move your writing forward: read about the topic, question your organization, rethink your opening sentence, and so forth. Writing requires completion of a series of complex processes that results in successful drafts. No student with a respectable work ethic can be blocked 360 degrees. Myth No. 5: I can revise in ten minutes Without feedback, writers wouldn’t know if their writing is good or bad. A rejected novel tells Stephen King his book is unsuccessful. A Pulitzer Prize tells Ernest Hemingway his writing is good, and similarly academic writers who think they can revise in ten minutes not only confuse revising with editing, but also underestimate the influence of revising on improving writing. Here’s a quick overview how editing and revising differ: Editing: A form of revising, editing is usually associated with correcting. An editing session may be completed in ten minutes, but it’s like the first step of a morning run. Revising: Revising is the process where writers see the biggest improvements in their writing. It ranges from rethinking structure, organization, focus, development, and flow to correcting rules of grammar, usage, punctuation, and spelling. Revising isn’t correcting writing, but clarifying the writing message. Good writers are good revisers. Myth No. 6: Writers are born Is anyone born with polished skills in any field? This line of thinking implies a fixed mindset; the belief that you’re either a college student or not or a confident person or not — and you can’t do anything to improve. Education and self-fulfillment result from a growth mindset, the belief that improvement results from hard work. Writers become good when they work hard developing the skills needed to become a writer, such as information gathering, planning, organizing, drafting, and revising. First-year writing courses offer a venue to improve writing. Students who work hard at it, and get help when they need it, succeed.

Article / Updated 08-03-2023

Research papers are like a six-hour energy drink for your grade. They’re usually weighted a higher point value than other assignments because they require more work. And writing a few successful research papers each semester helps to boost your grade point average — and your academic confidence. In addition to energizing your grade, here’s a look at the benefits of research papers and why they matter. Doing a research paper: Broadens your knowledge base: New knowledge produces new questions to answer and new answers to questions. Research papers broaden and develop new interests. Develops your scholarship: Research papers are the primary academic activity of scholars-in-training like you. More than any other academic assignment, research papers show your depth of understanding a topic. Focuses your expertise: If your research writing reveals patterns of interests, such as an analysis of workplace issues, you may be developing an area of focus for career exploration. Trace your research topics from middle school through college and analyze what they reveal about your interests. Develops problem-solving skills: Solving problems develops your problem-solving skills. Researching and writing are endless marathons of solving problems. Expands career opportunities: Research papers and grad school are a given. A research background also qualifies you for many business careers, including entrepreneurialism. Each paper you write represents an opportunity to explore a new career. Shows off your skills: Research papers demonstrate a variety of academic skills such as synthesizing, analyzing, organizing, summarizing, and paraphrasing. They also show skills such as creating research questions, developing an argument, and drawing conclusions. Before the age of mass computers, research was like locating a lucky flake in a family-size box of cereal. The research process included locating the library’s one copy of the Readers Guide to Periodical Literature, searching your topic, recording periodical biographical information, submitting your source requests, and returning in a week to see if your requests could be fulfilled. Occasionally, an overzealous peer would irresponsibly rip out the periodical page you needed for research. Gathering scholarly sources today lacks yesterday’s drama, but not yesterday’s importance. Sources may not be as significant to you as your phone and Wi-Fi, but without research skills to locate them, your academic life will crash like an overheated device. Put on your academic game face, alert your friends you’re taking a short sabbatical from social media, and commit yourself to the type of research that decreases the distance toward your college graduation goal. For more on how to start your college research paper, including formulating the all-important research question, creating an outline for a research paper, and gathering sources, check out my book College Research Papers For Dummies. What makes good research paper topics? Let this idea live rent free in your head: As a college professor who has graded more than 10,000 research papers, I assure you the most important grade-influencing decision you make — before you write word one in draft one — is identifying the topic. Innovative topics encourage your professor to reward your initiative with a grade of B or better, and it’s usually better. Innovative or outlier topics show your audience, and your professor, that your thinking surpasses the status quo and recognizes the importance of engaging writing and interesting content. Here are some examples of research paper topics that professors want to see more of and are willing to reward you for: Culinary trends in Shakespeare’s plays: What they say about nutrition at the time Nineteenth century literary characters who would blow up Twitter — and today’s First Amendment implications Is a “good” dictatorship better than a bad democracy? These topics combine unexpected elements: Shakespeare themes and nutrition, literary characters and the First Amendment — and arguing against the grain (a good dictatorship). Your initial topic, research questions, and thesis are called working because they usually require revising during background research and early writing of the assignment. Professor-pleasing topic elements In addition to novel and uncommon approaches, elements of professor-pleasing topics include the following: Addresses assignment question: Professors design research assignments to allow you broad interpretations of the topic, but not limitless approaches. Professors expect your topic to fulfill the major purpose of the assignment, usually a form of argument. Connects to course content: Connect your topic to course content by surveying your syllabus, reviewing tests, perusing notes and readings, and recalling class discussions. Identify major themes of the course and determine how one of them connects with the assignment. Contains a debatable issue: Be certain that your topic has an element of disagreement. If you’re arguing that government should partially repay student loans, be sure to address reasons for disagreement. Appeals to scholarly audience, including your professor: Connect your topic to the scholarly audience by analyzing it through an academic discipline, such as economics, health, psychology, sociology, and works of literature. Also consider integrating interests of your professor who represents that audience. Identifies with your academic interest: Within the context of the assignment, choose a topic that will sustain your interest for three or four weeks. Consider a topic in your major field of study, a topic you want to explore, or a topic you think about and talk about. Includes available research: An early red flag to abort your topic is lack of easily available research. If you can’t locate 15 to 20 sources on your first search, and if the reference librarian can’t direct you to topic sources, reboot your topic. How to find research paper topics Topic ideas surround your everyday academic life. Here are some resources for developing your research topic: Background reading: Read extensively and deeply on the topic. Read for who, what, when, where, how, and why. Read for ideas explained, implied, understated, and omitted. Your professor and other faculty: Talk with your professor about your planned approach to the topic and ask about other professors who may be a source for your research. You could also ask your professor for research paper examples that they consider high quality. Content from other courses: Professors value interdisciplinary thinking. Consider topics from another course that apply to the assignment. Library resources: A walk through the library or a scroll through the library website may generate topic ideas. Note displays and special interest exhibits and consider their connection to your topic. Campus and community issues: Consider campus and community issues that may connect to the assignment such as campus resources that can address community problems. Your phone’s AI: Ask your phone’s artificial intelligence for a suggested topic. The answer may surprise you. Social media: Is a topic trending on social media that’s academically applicable to the assignment? What topics are going viral? Identify a working topic within hours after analyzing your assignment and completing background reading. Avoid topic paralysis that bankrupts your time-management budget. Topic indecision is the enemy of a successful assignment. Topic pitfalls to avoid Your goal as a student is to fulfill your professor’s expectations for the assignment, which includes researching scholarly evidence to argue a thesis. Avoid topics that present unnecessary obstacles for achieving those objectives, such as the following: Too intricate: Steer clear of complex topics that exceed assignment length and increase difficulty of the assignment, such as the following: Causes of declining GPAs among first-generation college students who commute and work full time, reducing available study time All about AI: Uses and abuses, position in the workplace, and potential to replace college writing Non-arguable: College students thrive on defending a belief. But when a belief lacks defense, they’re speechless — or wordless. Here are examples of topics that lack a logical argument: Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide and needs a cure. Colleges that have large endowments offer more resources to students than colleges with smaller endowments. Values: College students feel strongly about their personal values (honesty, authenticity, compassion, service, and so forth). But research papers and most other college assignments (except in a course that studies values and ethics) aren’t the platform to defend them because they’re too difficult to argue with scholarly sources. Defend your values with how you live your life and argue them in dorm-room discussions — with the door closed tightly. Here are a couple of examples of a values topic difficult to write a research paper about: Too technical: Avoid topics that exceed the technical knowledge of your audience and require too much terminology to explain. For example: Unfair advantages of high-tech swimwear in collegiate competitive swimming The energy efficiency of an HVAC system is directly related to its air exchange capabilities Personal obsessions: Avoid topics focused on personal obsessions you’re passionate about, such as politics, religion, and personal health. The emotional “you” will overpower the logical “you,” and your argument usually includes personal opinion rather than scholarly sources and a thesis based on logic. As soon as you begin accumulating information for your research project, back up files and back up your backup. Universities usually provide adequate student storage. Self-emailing represents another form of back up, in addition to an external hard drive backup. Avoid embarrassing yourself with the excuses almost all professors will decry: “I lost my files” or “My computer crashed.” How to create a thesis statement Your most important sentence as an academic writer is the thesis statement, which states the position your paper will take and the direction it will develop. It’s like system settings on your devices, controlling every function of your research. If one part of your thesis malfunctions, your research assignment is toast. Think of the thesis like sentence ground zero. The development of every idea in the assignment flows through the thesis statement. In research writing, thesis statements are called claim statements because they claim or assert the argument of the paper. Thesis statements require more thought than any other sentence you write. And when the thesis fails, the assignment fails. These sections explain the what and how of writing thesis statements and illustrate five steps for drafting a research paper thesis. Focus your thesis on a problem within the topic After analyzing the assignment and background reading, identify a problem related to the topic. Here’s an example on the topic of earning college degrees: Almost 60 percent of first-year college students neglect to graduate within six years. The topic’s problems include millions of students who fail to achieve their college dream and the financial opportunities that accompany it and drop out of college with approximately $15,000 in student-loan debt. The thesis offers a research-supported solution to the problem. When thesis statements neglect to focus on a problem, they lack reader drama and audience interest. How to write a thesis The thesis identifies the purpose of the research paper and references the argument the paper will defend. Here’s an example of a thesis: The college admission process should include students’ demonstrating an understanding of at least three classic books. The sample thesis asserts that students should demonstrate critical reading skills before admission to college. The thesis argues that the almost 60 percent college attrition rate six years after enrollment is attributed to poor reading skills. It will be supported by research showing that reading is a fundamental skill for success in college. As a general rule, a thesis statement is completion of the sentence, such as: "The purpose of this research paper is to argue that …" Here’s a look at theses that complete that sentence: The cost of producing electric vehicles often exceeds energy saved over lifetime operation of the vehicle. Music improves the benefits of exercising. Colleges bear some responsibility for the student loan crisis. Here’s a look at some successful thesis statements: Responsibility for the student loan crisis should be shared by borrowers and colleges, especially the college admission process. Female characters in Shakespeare are representative of today’s “Me Too” movement. NIL (Name, Image, and Likeness) has had a positive influence on college academics. The most common error writing thesis statements is writing sentences too narrow or too broad. Here are examples of those errors and their revisions: Too narrow: College students’ academic performance is limited by eating unhealthy snacks. Revised: College students perform better academically when they exercise and develop good nutrition habits. Too broad: Everyone should go to college. Revised: Everyone qualified and motivated should attend college, but many other routes leading to career success and financial stability are available, such as the trades and entrepreneurialism. Drafting a research paper thesis in five easy steps Thesis statements preview the argument the research paper supports. Here are five easy-to-follow steps for writing a thesis statement for research papers: Determine your topic. After analyzing the assignment and reading background information, list the topic that interests you, which includes an argument and support by available research. Identify a problem. Identify a major problem related to the topic that the research paper will address. Interrogate your topic. Identify a variety of meanings of the problem by asking questions such as: Whom or what is affected by the problem? Who benefits and who doesn’t? So what? and What if? What do the answers suggest about content needed to address the topic? Write a research question. The question you write is answered by the thesis. Here’s an example of a research question: How does NIL affect college athletes? Convert the question into a position statement. A thesis statement takes an arguable position that offers a solution to the problem, such as: NIL provides college athletes with the same social media financial opportunities as non-athlete students.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 08-02-2023

College researchers can’t have too many resource options for searching information. A researcher without a supply of resources is like a well without water and no source of quenching academic thirst. College researchers frequently need supplemental sources of academic research. Additional resources also include uncommon rules of grammar and usage and strategies for presenting research papers in the classroom. This Cheat Sheet offers online academic sources, unconventional rules of grammar and usage, tips for presenting research papers, and more.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 08-02-2023

Turning a great idea into a book through self-publishing is an ambitious project. This Cheat Sheet provides tips to help you develop a positive image as a writer, as well as your own unique style and voice. It also includes information about 20 helpful apps for writers and authors, and advice on how to stay motivated in your writing.