{"appState":{"pageLoadApiCallsStatus":true},"categoryState":{"relatedCategories":{"headers":{"timestamp":"2023-02-01T16:01:09+00:00"},"categoryId":34076,"data":{"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","image":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"parentCategory":{"categoryId":34053,"title":"Psychology","slug":"psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"}},"childCategories":[],"description":"What can you do in a mental health crisis? Who was Erik Erikson? What is altruism? What effect does the internet have on our minds? Explore the fascinating world of human psychology.","relatedArticles":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles?category=34076&offset=0&size=5"},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":54,"bookCount":3},"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"relatedCategoriesLoadedStatus":"success"},"listState":{"list":{"count":10,"total":54,"items":[{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T22:40:38+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-08-08T15:23:02+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:52+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Understanding the Id, Ego, and Superego in Psychology","strippedTitle":"understanding the id, ego, and superego in psychology","slug":"understanding-the-id-ego-and-superego-in-psychology","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about the three key elements of Signmund Freud's model of the human personality, and how they interact in the drama of our lives.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"In Sigmund Freud's model of the human personality, each of us behaves according to these three key elements:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Id:</b> The seat of our impulses</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Ego:</b> Negotiates with the id, pleases the superego</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Superego:</b> Keeps us on the straight and narrow</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nFreud, the founder of psychoanalysis in <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/body-mind-spirit/emotional-health-psychology/psychology/general-psychology/psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet-207964/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">psychology</a>, would have been a great Hollywood screenwriter. His \"story\" of personality is one of desire, power, control, and freedom. The plot is complex and the characters compete. Our personalities represent a drama of sorts, acted out in our minds. \"You\" are a product of how these competing mental forces and structures interact.\r\n\r\nThe ancient Greeks thought that all people were actors in the drama of the gods above. For Freud, we are simply actors in the drama of our minds, pushed by desire, pulled by conscience. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power struggles going on deep within us.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">The id, ego, and superego each have their own idea of what the outcome of this drama should be. Their struggles are fueled by powerful motives, and each one is out for itself.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >I want, therefore I am</h2>\r\nThe initial structural component and first character in Freud's drama of personality is the id. Have you ever felt overpowered by an incredibly strong urge, impulse, or desire? A new car, sexual desire, a dream job? The answer is probably a resounding \"Yes!\"\r\n\r\nWhere does such desire come from? According to Freud, desire comes from the part of your personality called the <i>id,</i> located in the expanses of our mind. So look around, and look deep within. Look at your co-workers, look at your boss. It's in all of us, even the quiet elderly man at the bus stop. Underneath that quiet, grandfatherly demeanor lurks a seething cauldron of desire.\r\n\r\nThe id contains all of our most basic animal and primitive impulses that demand satisfaction. It's the Mr. Hyde emerging from the restrained Dr. Jekyll. It's that little devil that sits on your shoulder, whispering temptations and spurring you on. Whenever you see a selfish, spoiled child in the grocery store demanding a toy and throwing a tantrum if he doesn't get his way, you'll know that's the id in action!\r\n\r\nThe id is a type of \"container\" that holds our desires. Relentlessly driven by a force Freud called the <i>libido,</i> the collective energy of life's instincts and will to survive, the id must be satisfied! We're all born with the id in full force. It's unregulated and untouched by the constraints of the world outside of our minds. When a baby gets hungry, does she sit quietly and wait until someone remembers to feed her? Anyone who's ever gotten out of bed in the middle of the night to feed a baby knows the answer to that.\r\n<p class=\"Tip\">But don't give the id a bad rap. Where would you be without desire? Your desire pushes you through life; it leads you to seek the things you need to survive. Without it we'd die, or at the very least, we'd be really boring. So keep in mind that a large part of your personality consists of your desires and your attempts to satisfy them.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Enter the ego</h2>\r\nWouldn't it be nice if you could get everything you wanted, whenever and however you wanted it? Unfortunately, most of us know otherwise. We all know how frustrating it can be when a desire goes unmet or gets stifled. Well, you can blame your ego for that. The <i>ego</i> is Freud's second mental apparatus of personality. The ego's main function is to mediate between the id's demands and the external world around us — reality, in other words. Does the Rolling Stones' song \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\" come to mind?\r\n\r\nSo far, it seems that, if it wasn't for reality, we would be a lot more satisfied. Even though the ego finds itself in conflict with the id, satisfaction is not abandoned.\r\n\r\nThe ego is like a sports agent for a really talented athlete. Even though the athlete may demand a multimillion-dollar contract, the agent reminds him that he could price himself out of a job. So the ego negotiates with the id in order to get it what it wants without costing it too much in the long run. The ego accomplishes this important task by converting, diverting, and transforming the powerful forces of the id into more useful and realistic modes of satisfaction. It attempts to harness the id's power, regulating it in order to achieve satisfaction despite the limits of reality.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >The final judgment</h2>\r\nAs if the ego's job wasn't hard enough, playing referee between the id and reality, its performance is under constant scrutiny by a relentless judge, the superego. While the ego negotiates with the id, trying to prevent another tantrum, the superego judges the performance. <i>Superego</i> is another name for your conscience. It expects your ego to be strong and effective in its struggles against the libido's force.\r\n\r\nUsually, our conscience comes from our parents or a parental figure. As we grow, we internalize their standards, those same standards that make us feel so guilty when we tell a lie or cheat on our taxes.\r\n\r\nBut does everyone have a conscience? There are certain people throughout history who have committed such horrible acts of violence that we sometimes wonder if they are void of conscience. How can serial killers such as Ted Bundy or Wayne Williams commit such horrible crimes? A strong bet is that they lack the basic capacity to feel guilt, so nothing really prevents them from acting out their violent fantasies.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">A famous psychiatrist once said that evil men do what good men only dream of.</p>","description":"In Sigmund Freud's model of the human personality, each of us behaves according to these three key elements:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Id:</b> The seat of our impulses</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Ego:</b> Negotiates with the id, pleases the superego</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Superego:</b> Keeps us on the straight and narrow</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nFreud, the founder of psychoanalysis in <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/body-mind-spirit/emotional-health-psychology/psychology/general-psychology/psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet-207964/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">psychology</a>, would have been a great Hollywood screenwriter. His \"story\" of personality is one of desire, power, control, and freedom. The plot is complex and the characters compete. Our personalities represent a drama of sorts, acted out in our minds. \"You\" are a product of how these competing mental forces and structures interact.\r\n\r\nThe ancient Greeks thought that all people were actors in the drama of the gods above. For Freud, we are simply actors in the drama of our minds, pushed by desire, pulled by conscience. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power struggles going on deep within us.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">The id, ego, and superego each have their own idea of what the outcome of this drama should be. Their struggles are fueled by powerful motives, and each one is out for itself.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >I want, therefore I am</h2>\r\nThe initial structural component and first character in Freud's drama of personality is the id. Have you ever felt overpowered by an incredibly strong urge, impulse, or desire? A new car, sexual desire, a dream job? The answer is probably a resounding \"Yes!\"\r\n\r\nWhere does such desire come from? According to Freud, desire comes from the part of your personality called the <i>id,</i> located in the expanses of our mind. So look around, and look deep within. Look at your co-workers, look at your boss. It's in all of us, even the quiet elderly man at the bus stop. Underneath that quiet, grandfatherly demeanor lurks a seething cauldron of desire.\r\n\r\nThe id contains all of our most basic animal and primitive impulses that demand satisfaction. It's the Mr. Hyde emerging from the restrained Dr. Jekyll. It's that little devil that sits on your shoulder, whispering temptations and spurring you on. Whenever you see a selfish, spoiled child in the grocery store demanding a toy and throwing a tantrum if he doesn't get his way, you'll know that's the id in action!\r\n\r\nThe id is a type of \"container\" that holds our desires. Relentlessly driven by a force Freud called the <i>libido,</i> the collective energy of life's instincts and will to survive, the id must be satisfied! We're all born with the id in full force. It's unregulated and untouched by the constraints of the world outside of our minds. When a baby gets hungry, does she sit quietly and wait until someone remembers to feed her? Anyone who's ever gotten out of bed in the middle of the night to feed a baby knows the answer to that.\r\n<p class=\"Tip\">But don't give the id a bad rap. Where would you be without desire? Your desire pushes you through life; it leads you to seek the things you need to survive. Without it we'd die, or at the very least, we'd be really boring. So keep in mind that a large part of your personality consists of your desires and your attempts to satisfy them.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Enter the ego</h2>\r\nWouldn't it be nice if you could get everything you wanted, whenever and however you wanted it? Unfortunately, most of us know otherwise. We all know how frustrating it can be when a desire goes unmet or gets stifled. Well, you can blame your ego for that. The <i>ego</i> is Freud's second mental apparatus of personality. The ego's main function is to mediate between the id's demands and the external world around us — reality, in other words. Does the Rolling Stones' song \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\" come to mind?\r\n\r\nSo far, it seems that, if it wasn't for reality, we would be a lot more satisfied. Even though the ego finds itself in conflict with the id, satisfaction is not abandoned.\r\n\r\nThe ego is like a sports agent for a really talented athlete. Even though the athlete may demand a multimillion-dollar contract, the agent reminds him that he could price himself out of a job. So the ego negotiates with the id in order to get it what it wants without costing it too much in the long run. The ego accomplishes this important task by converting, diverting, and transforming the powerful forces of the id into more useful and realistic modes of satisfaction. It attempts to harness the id's power, regulating it in order to achieve satisfaction despite the limits of reality.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >The final judgment</h2>\r\nAs if the ego's job wasn't hard enough, playing referee between the id and reality, its performance is under constant scrutiny by a relentless judge, the superego. While the ego negotiates with the id, trying to prevent another tantrum, the superego judges the performance. <i>Superego</i> is another name for your conscience. It expects your ego to be strong and effective in its struggles against the libido's force.\r\n\r\nUsually, our conscience comes from our parents or a parental figure. As we grow, we internalize their standards, those same standards that make us feel so guilty when we tell a lie or cheat on our taxes.\r\n\r\nBut does everyone have a conscience? There are certain people throughout history who have committed such horrible acts of violence that we sometimes wonder if they are void of conscience. How can serial killers such as Ted Bundy or Wayne Williams commit such horrible crimes? A strong bet is that they lack the basic capacity to feel guilt, so nothing really prevents them from acting out their violent fantasies.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">A famous psychiatrist once said that evil men do what good men only dream of.</p>","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"I want, therefore I am","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Enter the ego","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"The final judgment","target":"#tab3"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" 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Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"3 Psychological Tests to Measure Abnormal Behavior, Achievement, and Personality","strippedTitle":"3 psychological tests to measure abnormal behavior, achievement, and personality","slug":"3-psychological-tests-to-measure-abnormal-behavior-achievement-and-personality","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Psychological tests are part of the entire psychological assessment process. Assessment is a set of scientific procedures used to measure and evaluate an indivi","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Psychological tests are part of the entire psychological assessment process. <i>Assessment</i> is a set of scientific procedures used to measure and evaluate an individual’s behavior and mental processes. Psychologist Anne Anastasi (1908–2001), a past president of the American Psychological Association, defines a psychological test as an objective, standardized sample of behavior or mental processes. Nearly all topics in psychology can be measured with a test.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Clinical tests</h2>\r\nClinical psychologists (psychologists who work with mental disorders and abnormal behavior) typically use clinical testing as a way to clarify diagnoses and assess the scope and nature of a person’s or family’s disturbance and dysfunction. Specific tests are designed to assess the extent to which a patient may or may not be experiencing the symptoms of a particular disorder. These are <i>diagnostic tests</i>.\r\n\r\n<i>Behavioral and adaptive functioning </i>tests are two types of clinical tests that determine how well a person is doing in her everyday life and whether she exhibits specific problem behaviors. A common instrument used with children is the Child Behavior Checklist, which assesses the extent of a child’s behavior problems. Another commonly used clinical test is the Conner’s Parent Rating Scale, which detects attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms.\r\n\r\nIn addition to disorder-specific inventories and tests, a wide variety of tests designed for other purposes lend themselves to the diagnostic process. Intelligence tests are designed to measure intelligence, but they can also show signs of cognitive dysfunction and learning disabilities. Personality tests are designed to measure personality, but they can also provide helpful insight to the types of psychological problems an individual is experiencing.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Educational and achievement tests</h2>\r\nEducational and achievement tests measure an individual’s current level of academic competence. Glen Aylward, chair of the Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics at the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, identifies three major purposes of this type of testing:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Identify students who need special instruction.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Identify the nature of a student’s difficulties in order to rule out learning disabilities.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Assist in educational planning and approach to instruction.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nA typical educational/achievement test assesses the most common areas of school activity: reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing skills. Some tests include other areas such as science and social studies. A popular achievement test in use today is the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery, Revised. The test consists of nine subtests, measuring the standard areas of instruction but in more detail (mathematics is broken down into calculation and applied problems, for example).\r\n\r\nWhen a student has a hard time in school, it’s not unusual to administer an achievement test. Sometimes, students have a difficult time because they have a learning disability. Part of identifying a learning disability is assessing the student’s achievement level. Other times, a student struggles because of non-academic difficulties including emotional problems, substance abuse, or family issues. An achievement test sometimes helps to tease out these non-academic problems.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Personality tests</h2>\r\nPersonality tests measure many different things, not just personality. Numerous tests are designed to measure emotion, motivation, and interpersonal skills as well as specific aspects of personality, according to the given theory on which a test is based. Most personality tests are known as <i>self-reports.</i> With self-reports, the person answering questions about herself, typically in a pencil-and-paper format, provides the information.\r\n\r\nPersonality tests are usually developed with a particular theory of personality in mind. A test may measure id, ego, or superego issues, for example, if it originates from a Freudian view of personality development.\r\n<h3>MMPI-2</h3>\r\nPerhaps the most widely used personality test in the United States is the<i> </i>MMPI-2, The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 2nd Edition.<i> </i>Almost all American psychologists are trained to use the MMPI-2, which is considered to be a very reliable and valid instrument.\r\n\r\nA patient’s results from a MMPI-2 test provide rich information about the presence of psychopathology and level of severity, if present. The test’s results also reveal information about the emotional, behavioral, and social functioning of the test taker. A lot of psychologists use the MMPI-2 as a way to check the accuracy of their observations and diagnoses.\r\n\r\nThe MMPI-2 test consists of 567 individual items and produces a score on nine clinical categories or scales. If a score is over a specific cutoff, it usually gets the attention of the psychologist administering the test. Psychologists consider such scores to be of clinical significance. The MMPI-2 covers a wide variety of areas, including depression, physical complaints, anger, social contact, anxiety, and energy level.\r\n<h3>Projective personality tests</h3>\r\n<i>Projective personality tests</i> are a unique breed of test. When most people think of psychological testing, these kinds of tests come readily to mind. The stereotype involves sitting across from a psychologist, looking at a card with smeared ink or a picture of somebody doing something on it, and answering questions like “What do you see here?”\r\n\r\n(You can take a free, mock personality test at <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/psychology/mock-millennial-generation-personality-test/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">here</a>.)\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Projective personality tests are based on the <i>projective hypothesis,</i> which states that when presented with ambiguous stimuli, people project parts of themselves and their psychological functioning that they may not reveal if asked directly The idea is that many people can’t exactly describe what’s going on mentally and emotionally because of psychological defense mechanisms. Projective tests get past the defenses and penetrate the deep recesses of the psyche.</p>\r\nPerhaps the most popular projective personality test and maybe even the most popular psychological test of all time is the Rorschach Inkblot Test (RIT).<i> </i>The RIT consists of ten cards, each with its own standard inkblot figure. None of these inkblots are a picture or representation of anything. They were created by simply pouring ink onto a sheet of paper and folding it in half. The only meaning and structure the cards have are provided by the projections of the test taker himself.","description":"Psychological tests are part of the entire psychological assessment process. <i>Assessment</i> is a set of scientific procedures used to measure and evaluate an individual’s behavior and mental processes. Psychologist Anne Anastasi (1908–2001), a past president of the American Psychological Association, defines a psychological test as an objective, standardized sample of behavior or mental processes. Nearly all topics in psychology can be measured with a test.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Clinical tests</h2>\r\nClinical psychologists (psychologists who work with mental disorders and abnormal behavior) typically use clinical testing as a way to clarify diagnoses and assess the scope and nature of a person’s or family’s disturbance and dysfunction. Specific tests are designed to assess the extent to which a patient may or may not be experiencing the symptoms of a particular disorder. These are <i>diagnostic tests</i>.\r\n\r\n<i>Behavioral and adaptive functioning </i>tests are two types of clinical tests that determine how well a person is doing in her everyday life and whether she exhibits specific problem behaviors. A common instrument used with children is the Child Behavior Checklist, which assesses the extent of a child’s behavior problems. Another commonly used clinical test is the Conner’s Parent Rating Scale, which detects attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms.\r\n\r\nIn addition to disorder-specific inventories and tests, a wide variety of tests designed for other purposes lend themselves to the diagnostic process. Intelligence tests are designed to measure intelligence, but they can also show signs of cognitive dysfunction and learning disabilities. Personality tests are designed to measure personality, but they can also provide helpful insight to the types of psychological problems an individual is experiencing.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Educational and achievement tests</h2>\r\nEducational and achievement tests measure an individual’s current level of academic competence. Glen Aylward, chair of the Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics at the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, identifies three major purposes of this type of testing:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Identify students who need special instruction.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Identify the nature of a student’s difficulties in order to rule out learning disabilities.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Assist in educational planning and approach to instruction.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nA typical educational/achievement test assesses the most common areas of school activity: reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing skills. Some tests include other areas such as science and social studies. A popular achievement test in use today is the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery, Revised. The test consists of nine subtests, measuring the standard areas of instruction but in more detail (mathematics is broken down into calculation and applied problems, for example).\r\n\r\nWhen a student has a hard time in school, it’s not unusual to administer an achievement test. Sometimes, students have a difficult time because they have a learning disability. Part of identifying a learning disability is assessing the student’s achievement level. Other times, a student struggles because of non-academic difficulties including emotional problems, substance abuse, or family issues. An achievement test sometimes helps to tease out these non-academic problems.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Personality tests</h2>\r\nPersonality tests measure many different things, not just personality. Numerous tests are designed to measure emotion, motivation, and interpersonal skills as well as specific aspects of personality, according to the given theory on which a test is based. Most personality tests are known as <i>self-reports.</i> With self-reports, the person answering questions about herself, typically in a pencil-and-paper format, provides the information.\r\n\r\nPersonality tests are usually developed with a particular theory of personality in mind. A test may measure id, ego, or superego issues, for example, if it originates from a Freudian view of personality development.\r\n<h3>MMPI-2</h3>\r\nPerhaps the most widely used personality test in the United States is the<i> </i>MMPI-2, The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 2nd Edition.<i> </i>Almost all American psychologists are trained to use the MMPI-2, which is considered to be a very reliable and valid instrument.\r\n\r\nA patient’s results from a MMPI-2 test provide rich information about the presence of psychopathology and level of severity, if present. The test’s results also reveal information about the emotional, behavioral, and social functioning of the test taker. A lot of psychologists use the MMPI-2 as a way to check the accuracy of their observations and diagnoses.\r\n\r\nThe MMPI-2 test consists of 567 individual items and produces a score on nine clinical categories or scales. If a score is over a specific cutoff, it usually gets the attention of the psychologist administering the test. Psychologists consider such scores to be of clinical significance. The MMPI-2 covers a wide variety of areas, including depression, physical complaints, anger, social contact, anxiety, and energy level.\r\n<h3>Projective personality tests</h3>\r\n<i>Projective personality tests</i> are a unique breed of test. When most people think of psychological testing, these kinds of tests come readily to mind. The stereotype involves sitting across from a psychologist, looking at a card with smeared ink or a picture of somebody doing something on it, and answering questions like “What do you see here?”\r\n\r\n(You can take a free, mock personality test at <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/psychology/mock-millennial-generation-personality-test/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">here</a>.)\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Projective personality tests are based on the <i>projective hypothesis,</i> which states that when presented with ambiguous stimuli, people project parts of themselves and their psychological functioning that they may not reveal if asked directly The idea is that many people can’t exactly describe what’s going on mentally and emotionally because of psychological defense mechanisms. Projective tests get past the defenses and penetrate the deep recesses of the psyche.</p>\r\nPerhaps the most popular projective personality test and maybe even the most popular psychological test of all time is the Rorschach Inkblot Test (RIT).<i> </i>The RIT consists of ten cards, each with its own standard inkblot figure. None of these inkblots are a picture or representation of anything. They were created by simply pouring ink onto a sheet of paper and folding it in half. The only meaning and structure the cards have are provided by the projections of the test taker himself.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9556,"name":"Adam Cash","slug":"adam-cash","description":" <p><b>Adam Cash</b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9556"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Clinical tests","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Educational and achievement tests","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Personality tests","target":"#tab3"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":207964,"title":"Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207964"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282513,"slug":"psychology-for-dummies-3rd-edition","isbn":"9781119700296","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119700299-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/psychology-for-dummies-3rd-edition-cover-9781119700296-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Psychology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9556\">Adam Cash</b></b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9556,"name":"Adam Cash","slug":"adam-cash","description":" <p><b>Adam Cash</b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9556"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119700296&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b470a06e\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119700296&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b470ab15\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-06-24T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":160466},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:54:36+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-27T18:08:05+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:41+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Sports Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"sports psychology for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"sports-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about a key muscle to exercise as you play sports — your mind! Tap into the power of psychology to focus and build confidence.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Being a successful athlete is about more than just physical strength and agility — your mind plays a key part in your winning performance. You can use sports psychology techniques to build confidence and improve your focus.\r\n\r\nSports psychology isn’t limited to athletes — as a coach, you can use sports psychology to help your athletes achieve their goals.","description":"Being a successful athlete is about more than just physical strength and agility — your mind plays a key part in your winning performance. You can use sports psychology techniques to build confidence and improve your focus.\r\n\r\nSports psychology isn’t limited to athletes — as a coach, you can use sports psychology to help your athletes achieve their goals.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":10223,"name":"Leif H. Smith","slug":"leif-h-smith","description":" <p><b>Leif Smith, PsyD,</b> is president of a sports psychology and performance consultancy. His work has been cited in publications such as <i>The New York Times</i>.</p> <p><b>Todd Kays, PhD, </b>is president of the Athletic Mind Institute, a sports and performance consulting firm. He&#8217;s a licensed psychologist whose training and guidance have helped thousands of athletes. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10223"}},{"authorId":10224,"name":"Todd M. Kays","slug":"todd-m-kays","description":" <p><b>Leif Smith, PsyD,</b> is president of a sports psychology and performance consultancy. His work has been cited in publications such as <i>The New York Times</i>.</p> <p><b>Todd Kays, PhD, </b>is president of the Athletic Mind Institute, a sports and performance consulting firm. He&#8217;s a licensed psychologist whose training and guidance have helped thousands of athletes. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10224"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34075,"title":"Sports","slug":"sports","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34075"}},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":189325,"title":"Using Sports Psychology as a Coach","slug":"using-sports-psychology-as-a-coach","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/189325"}},{"articleId":189326,"title":"Building Confidence in Sports","slug":"building-confidence-in-sports","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/189326"}},{"articleId":189315,"title":"Improving Your Focus with Sports Psychology","slug":"improving-your-focus-with-sports-psychology","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/189315"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282596,"slug":"sports-psychology-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119855996","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119855993/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119855993/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119855993-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119855993/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119855993/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119855996-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Sports Psychology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b>Leif Smith, PsyD,</b> is president of a sports psychology and performance consultancy. His work has been cited in publications such as <i>The New York Times</i>.</p> <p><b>Todd Kays, PhD, </b>is president of the Athletic Mind Institute, a sports and performance consulting firm. He&#8217;s a licensed psychologist whose training and guidance have helped thousands of athletes. <p><b>Leif Smith, PsyD,</b> is president of a sports psychology and performance consultancy. His work has been cited in publications such as <i>The New York Times</i>.</p> <p><b>Todd Kays, PhD, </b>is president of the Athletic Mind Institute, a sports and performance consulting firm. He&#8217;s a licensed psychologist whose training and guidance have helped thousands of athletes.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":10223,"name":"Leif H. Smith","slug":"leif-h-smith","description":" <p><b>Leif Smith, PsyD,</b> is president of a sports psychology and performance consultancy. His work has been cited in publications such as <i>The New York Times</i>.</p> <p><b>Todd Kays, PhD, </b>is president of the Athletic Mind Institute, a sports and performance consulting firm. He&#8217;s a licensed psychologist whose training and guidance have helped thousands of athletes. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10223"}},{"authorId":10224,"name":"Todd M. Kays","slug":"todd-m-kays","description":" <p><b>Leif Smith, PsyD,</b> is president of a sports psychology and performance consultancy. His work has been cited in publications such as <i>The New York Times</i>.</p> <p><b>Todd Kays, PhD, </b>is president of the Athletic Mind Institute, a sports and performance consulting firm. He&#8217;s a licensed psychologist whose training and guidance have helped thousands of athletes. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/10224"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119855996&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b3d8d684\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119855996&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b3d8e061\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":189315,"title":"Improving Your Focus with Sports Psychology","slug":"improving-your-focus-with-sports-psychology","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/189315"}},{"articleId":189326,"title":"Building Confidence in Sports","slug":"building-confidence-in-sports","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/189326"}},{"articleId":189325,"title":"Using Sports Psychology as a Coach","slug":"using-sports-psychology-as-a-coach","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","sports"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/189325"}}],"content":[{"title":"Improving your focus with sports psychology","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Focus is one of the most powerful tools in sports psychology. Whatever sport you compete in, the ability to focus is essential to success. You can improve your focus by following these tips:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Know what you need to focus on.</strong> The clearer you are about what you want to focus on, the more likely you’ll be to stay focused on the factors that contribute to your success.</li>\n<li><strong>Focus on what you can control.</strong> You have control over yourself and your own actions and attitudes — nothing more. Keep your focus here. If you focus on outcomes (things you have no control over), you’re creating unnecessary anxiety. Focus on the process and you increase the likelihood of positive results happening.</li>\n<li><strong>Stay relaxed under pressure. </strong>When you’re stressed and anxious, your focus drops. Find ways to stay calm in high-pressure situations, such as taking deep breaths, stretching muscles to loosen them, engaging in effective routines to keep your focus where it needs to be, or listening to music that keeps you centered.</li>\n<li><strong>Use cue words. </strong>Cue words are simple words and phrases that remind you of your focus points. Repeating words and phrases such as <em>relax,</em> <em>play hard,</em> or <em>quick feet</em> will remind you to focus on what you need to do. If your mind is focused on your cue words, your body will follow.</li>\n<li><strong>Develop effective routines.</strong> A routine is like a funnel — it channels your focus and gets you ready to compete. Your routines help you maintain your focus on the right things and prevent many potential distractions from entering your mind. For example, listen to three or four songs before games to get yourself ready, or eat a certain meal, arrive at the playing field in enough time to get prepared, or go through a specific type of warm-up.</li>\n<li><strong>Use mental imagery. </strong>Practice seeing yourself perform exactly as you want to perform, focusing exactly as you want to focus. The more your train your mind to focus on the right things, the more it will respond. Mental imagery is simply seeing yourself perform as you desire long before you even step on the field of play.</li>\n<li><strong>Rate your focus daily. </strong>Keep a journal in which you rate your level of focus before and after each practice or competition. Simple daily evaluations are critical to improving your focus. By consistently being consciously aware of improving and evaluating your focus, you’ll automatically do so.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Building confidence in sports ","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Sports psychology can help athletes looking to improve their confidence. You may be the strongest, tallest, most powerful athlete on the field, court, or track, but if you aren’t confident in your abilities, you’ll have trouble reaching your goals. Work on improving your confidence just as you work on developing your sport-specific skills, and your performance will soar.</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Realize that confidence fluctuates.</strong> Confidence for all athletes — even at the highest level — ebbs and flows. Confidence is not all or nothing. It’s a state of mind that fluctuates, so don’t beat yourself up when your confidence is lower. Just focus on improving, and your confidence will follow suit.</li>\n<li><strong>Focus on yourself, not on others.</strong> Instead of thinking about how well your teammates or opponents are doing, think about your own performance and how you can improve. This is <em>your</em> athletic career, so you need to focus on what <em>you</em> need to do to improve as an athlete. And when you improve as an athlete, your confidence will increase.</li>\n<li><strong>Focus on day-to-day success.</strong> When you have success every day in training — even the smallest of successes — your confidence rises. If your confidence rises a small amount each day, just think where you’ll be in one month, six months, or a year!</li>\n<li><strong>Concentrate on the process, not outcomes. </strong>When you focus on improving your performance — the process of improving — you become more confident because you’re focusing on something you have control over. You can’t control outcomes; you may play your best game ever and still lose. If you’re focused on process, sure, you’ll be disappointed when you lose, but your confidence will remain high, because you’ll know you performed your best.</li>\n<li><strong>Focus on what you’re doing right.</strong> Learning from your mistakes is important, but you don’t want to linger on them. If you spend too much time thinking about your mistakes, your confidence will wane. When you focus on what you’re doing right and correct your errors, your confidence will rise.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Using sports psychology as a coach ","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>As a coach, you can run drills with your athletes day and night, but if you ignore your athletes’ minds, you’ll only tap into a fraction of what they can do. Here are some ways you can use sports psychology to help your athletes reach their goals:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Use mental imagery. </strong>Make sure your athletes engage in some form of mental imagery — visualization techniques, journaling, or discussion. They’ll become more focused in practice, which will lead to improvement, greater confidence, and more success.</li>\n<li><strong>Build a “we” mentality, not a “me” mentality.</strong> Simple, daily exercises can take a team of average athletes working together to accomplish the success of a championship-caliber team. For example, engage in social activities, such as team dinners, video-game tournaments, or bowling, as a way for your athletes to get to know each other off the field.Create athletic drills where teamwork is critical for success. Show famous movies that involve sports and teamwork as a way to keep the importance of teamwork in the forefront of your athletes’ minds. Seek out a good sports psychologist to come out and help to create numerous team-building activities that help emphasize the “we” mentality.</li>\n<li><strong>Motivate your athletes. </strong>One of the best ways to motivate your athletes is to get to know them personally and show that you care about them, not just for their sport skills. If you notice a drop in motivation, ask them about it. Share stories of famous athletes who fought through hard times when motivation was low.Bring in guest speakers, such as elite athletes or former alumni, to inspire your athletes to be the best they can be. Keep them focused on getting better every day. Set short-term goals and help them accomplish them. Help them connect to the reason they’re playing the sport in the first place.</li>\n<li><strong>Build awareness.</strong> Journaling and mindfulness drills build awareness of the power of thoughts and emotions. These are simple exercises and great tools for the mental game.</li>\n<li><strong>Teach parents how to best work with their kids.</strong> Remind parents to have a good time because when they have fun and keep sports in perspective, their kids can relax and perform better. Tell them that life skills are the most important ways they can help their kids — being prepared for practice, working hard, establishing good habits, eating well and getting enough rest, having integrity, displaying teamwork, and bouncing back after a mistake. These concepts will help parents assist <em>you</em> in teaching their kids and your athletes good habits.</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-06-25T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208727},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:48:13+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-19T18:58:20+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:38+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Dream Dictionary For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"dream dictionary for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"dream-dictionary-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Your dreams are trying to tell you something! Learn how to interpret your dreams by keeping a dream diary and discovering common symbols.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Your dreams are trying to tell you something. If you can interpret your dreams, they offer you greater self-awareness, knowledge, and success. Don't overlook the details in your dreams — messages may be lurking there. Keep a dream diary to uncover themes and insight in your dreams. Study the meanings of common dreams, because they represent situations most people experience at some point in life.","description":"Your dreams are trying to tell you something. If you can interpret your dreams, they offer you greater self-awareness, knowledge, and success. Don't overlook the details in your dreams — messages may be lurking there. Keep a dream diary to uncover themes and insight in your dreams. Study the meanings of common dreams, because they represent situations most people experience at some point in life.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9115,"name":"Penney Peirce","slug":"penney-peirce","description":" \t <p><b>Penney Peirce</b> is a gifted intuitive, visionary, and trainer specializing in developing and applying intuition in personal and business life. She has coached executives, psychologists, and those seeking spiritual enlightenment. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9115"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b3a8811c\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b3a88ba4\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":154652,"title":"The Importance of Detail in Your Dreams","slug":"the-importance-of-detail-in-your-dreams","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/154652"}},{"articleId":154653,"title":"How to Keep a Dream Diary","slug":"how-to-keep-a-dream-diary","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/154653"}},{"articleId":154654,"title":"10 Common Dreams and Their Meanings","slug":"10-common-dreams-and-their-meanings","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/154654"}}],"content":[{"title":"The importance of detail in your dreams","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Be conscious of the details in your dreams. Recording them in your dream diary can trigger insights into what problems your brain is trying to resolve and make the meaning of your dreams more evident.</p>\n<p>Look for the following details in your dreams that you may otherwise gloss over:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What are the key elements of the dream?</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">How would you describe the dream structure?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What were the main scenes and settings in the dream?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Was there a sense of time or direction?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">How was the dream lit?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What was your viewpoint?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What characters were present?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What were the primary images, objects, symbols, or patterns?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Did numbers occur in the dream?</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What are the motivations?</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What actions were taken, and by whom?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What choices or decisions were made, and by whom?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What outcomes were reached?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">At what speed was the action occurring?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What statements were made?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What was left incomplete?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What impressions did you have about the dream while dreaming?</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What are the feelings?</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What feelings did you or other characters have?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What senses were you using to perceive?</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">How is each part about you?</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">What do you have in common with each symbol and character?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">How do the emotions, decisions, and actions parallel something in your own life?</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"How to keep a dream diary","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>A dream diary helps you monitor your dreams and discover themes or how your dreams have become true or insightful. Make the most of your dreams by following these tips for an insightful dream journal:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Personalize your diary:</b> It can be neat and tidy, a large sketchbook with no lines, a simple spiral-bound book, or even a computer.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Use your diary effectively:</b> Your diary is a record of what&#8217;s going on in the hidden dimensions of your life. You can use it for more than just recording dreams:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write about your dream goals and your dream-sabotaging ideas.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Examine your sleep pattern and cycles.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Collect images from magazines, books, flyers, and so on that trigger dreams and make collages, diagrams, and illustrations with those images.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write or copy inspirational quotes, poetry, and prayers.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write about waking dreams, dream fragments, and single symbols.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write the date of each dream and put a star next to important dreams.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write in the present tense, recording as many details as you can.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Document your dream incubation statements.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write about dream images that have carried over from the previous day and what happens in the days after an important dream.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Write even if no dreams come:</b> Commit to writing something every day to make your diary more effective. Here are some ideas:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Write about your emotional state.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Invent a dream character, dream locale, and a dream theme.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"10 common dreams and their meanings","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>You&#8217;ve probably experienced one of these ten dreams in your life; they focus on themes universal to most of us. By working with the inner messages in common dreams, you can maximize your confidence, creativity, and effectiveness in waking life.</p>\n<h2>My teeth are falling out!</h2>\n<p>If your teeth are dirty, diseased, disintegrating, or falling out in your dreams, you&#8217;re probably worrying about how pleasing and attractive you are to others and to sexual and romantic partners. You may be afraid of getting old. Teeth also relate to self-expression and effective communication, so losing teeth can mean you&#8217;re embarrassed about something you&#8217;ve said, or you&#8217;re having trouble saying what you really mean.</p>\n<p>The real essence of teeth is their ability to bite through, to cut, tear, and grind. As human animals, you retain a vestige of snarling — showing teeth as a &#8220;stay back&#8221; warning — in our disarming smile. If your teeth fall out, you lose personal power and your ability to be assertive, decisive, and self-protective.</p>\n<p><b>You might ask yourself:</b> Where do I lack confidence or feel powerless? With whom do I feel self-conscious or insecure? How am I angry or frustrated? Where should I take action to &#8220;bite through&#8221; something, or chew something thoroughly so I understand it?</p>\n<h2>I&#8217;m naked in public!</h2>\n<p>You&#8217;re going about your business and suddenly realize you&#8217;re naked or in your underwear at work or at the grocery store. Exposure dreams bring to light the things you don&#8217;t want others to know about you and places where you feel vulnerable. Suddenly everyone sees through you. Being naked in front of others also implies being caught off guard or being unprepared, uninformed, uneducated, or unpracticed.</p>\n<p><b>Try asking yourself: </b>What have I been hiding? Where do I feel like a phony? What&#8217;s wrong with being seen for whom I really am? Where do I feel invisible? Can I tolerate, or even love, my imperfections? Who am I afraid will reject me? What am I telling myself I need to be prepared for — for my own sake?</p>\n<h2>A monster is chasing me!</h2>\n<p>You&#8217;re running, trying to outpace or outwit your pursuer, and he/she/it&#8217;s gaining on you! Suddenly your legs are paralyzed! Chase dreams often represent fears of facing up to something you&#8217;ve judged negatively, like your own rage, shame, or irresponsibility, for example.</p>\n<p>Or, you may feel threatened by someone or by a possible failure. If you become paralyzed, you probably need to stand still and meet your pursuer to receive an important message. Or, you may be experiencing the normal &#8220;paralysis&#8221; that occurs in the REM (rapid eye movement) sleep state.</p>\n<p><b>Try asking yourself:</b> What do I feel threatened by? What am I avoiding? Who have I given my power to? Where have I surrendered my right to &#8220;take up space&#8221;? Where do I feel helpless or unsupported? How do I deal with conflict?</p>\n<h2>I&#8217;m in my childhood home; it has new rooms!</h2>\n<p>Houses are symbols of the self, so returning to an old house means you are looking back at an old way of being, past habits, identities you&#8217;ve held, and outdated concepts you&#8217;ve been operating from. Perhaps you need to bring repressed memories to the surface to be healed.</p>\n<p>Trying to live in an old house that might be too small for you now, or seeing things that need repair, means you&#8217;re becoming conscious of how much you&#8217;ve grown and what you&#8217;re renovating in yourself. When your old house has new rooms, you&#8217;ve added new talents, experiences, people, and components to your life.</p>\n<p><b>You might ask yourself:</b> What parts of my house need refurbishing? Am I comfortable in this space? Which room is my favorite? What do the new rooms symbolize?</p>\n<h2>I&#8217;m making love with a movie star!</h2>\n<p>Sex dreams are often about merging several aspects of yourself together, or loving a part of yourself you&#8217;ve judged or rejected. Sex with a celebrity can mean you want more visibility, self-worth, and recognition, or you are activating qualities in yourself represented by the famous person.</p>\n<p>Sex with an authority figure like a professor, doctor, or boss, can show how it feels to have greater power and knowledge so you can be more effective in the world. Sex with a foreigner or someone of another race might mean you are integrating the character traits of that culture or racial consciousness into your personality. Sex with someone of your own gender may simply show you how to better accept and love yourself.</p>\n<p><b>You might ask yourself:</b> What quality or experience am I activating in myself? What do I admire about this lover that is a key to a new ability of mine?</p>\n<h2>I lost my wallet and keys!</h2>\n<p>Dreams of loss point to areas where you are too attached to something; you are telling yourself, &#8220;Let go and see what comes next when you don&#8217;t have it all locked down.&#8221; Losing your wallet can indicate it&#8217;s time to reexamine your identity. Losing your car may mean you need to look at your need for movement, freedom, and independence as you&#8217;ve defined it. Losing keys points to a fear of losing authority or access to an opportunity. Losing money can mean you&#8217;re letting go of what&#8217;s been valuable to you so you can revalue your core self.</p>\n<p><b>Ask yourself:</b> How have I outgrown ideas of who I am? Where do I need to let go and trust the unknown part of myself to provide for me? Where do I need to experience space and emptiness instead of clutter?</p>\n<h2>I&#8217;m taking a test and didn&#8217;t study!</h2>\n<p>You have an exam and can&#8217;t find the room, you are late, or haven&#8217;t studied. You&#8217;re in a play and forgot your lines. Performance anxiety dreams point to areas in your life where you feel judged by others or unprepared for a challenge. You fear if you don&#8217;t do well, you&#8217;ll be rejected and ridiculed.</p>\n<p>If the setting is academic, you probably need to pay attention to new knowledge or to a lesson that&#8217;s part of your personal growth process. If it&#8217;s a play or a keynote lecture, you may be ready to express yourself more fully, to be more articulate and confident in the world.</p>\n<p><b>You might ask yourself:</b> What new opportunity do I want but don&#8217;t feel ready for? How could I feel adequately prepared? How do I feel I might let others down? Who has expectations of me and who am I afraid of not pleasing?</p>\n<h2>I found money or jewels!</h2>\n<p>Dreams about finding valuables operate on several levels. You may be awash in debt, fear that you&#8217;ll never have enough, or that you&#8217;ll lose what you have. You want to feel lucky, abundant, influential, and rich, so you try it out in your dreams.</p>\n<p>Under these worries often lurks a deeper fear — that you don&#8217;t deserve to be loved, supported, or cared for. Your deep self is showing you what it feels like to be blessed. Gaining money or valuables really means you&#8217;re gaining in emotional well-being, confidence, and power. You may be preparing to increase your creativity and abundance level, to feel that having more is normal.</p>\n<p><b>Try asking yourself:</b> Who gave me the money or valuables? What or who does this person represent to me? Where did I find the valuables and what do the place and kind of item represent to me? What&#8217;s my attitude as I receive: greedy, worried, egocentric? How do I act after I&#8217;ve received: powerful, generous, relaxed?</p>\n<h2>I&#8217;m having surgery on my eyes, brain, heart, or . . . !</h2>\n<p>Hospital and surgery dreams are often symbolic of a fundamental change you&#8217;re making in the way you live, the way you work with energy and run your body, and how you construct your identity and world view. On rare occasions, they are warnings about actual health problems, or they indicate you&#8217;re exhausted and need to rest and be cared for so you can shift to a new phase of self-expression.</p>\n<p>You may need to get something out of your system, change your habits, move to a new location, or release a person from your life. You may need to open yourself to emotional healing and new experiences. If you experience anesthesia in the dream, you&#8217;re probably avoiding your feelings, worries, or responsibilities. If you&#8217;re bleeding profusely in the dream or feel actual pain, you are telling your conscious mind that part of you feels out of control, severely drained, and mortally wounded by trauma or cruelty.</p>\n<p><b>Try asking yourself: </b>What or who has caused me to feel so wounded and helpless? Why am I focusing on this particular area of my body? What are the surgeons doing to help me? Is there a change occurring in my subtle energy body? After I heal, what will I be capable of doing? How is the pattern of my awareness changing?</p>\n<h2>My car won&#8217;t stop or go!</h2>\n<p>&#8220;Difficulty with your vehicle&#8221; dreams usually arise when events in your waking life seem out of control, you feel powerless over something, or are afraid you&#8217;re about to fail or &#8220;crash.&#8221; Your car is rolling backwards, the brakes won&#8217;t work, you&#8217;re trying to steer from the back seat, the tires are flat, the ignition doesn&#8217;t catch. Vehicles are symbols for the way you move through experiences in your life. Cars, motorcycles, bicycles, buses, or trains represent physical experience and your body; boats signify emotional experience; planes connect you to mental experience; and rockets and UFOs represent spiritual levels.</p>\n<p>Once you see what level of yourself you&#8217;re focusing on, determine whether you are the driver or passenger. This shows how you feel about being able to direct your own life. Driving from the back seat means you need to step up and be more responsible. Someone else driving means you&#8217;ve given your authority away. Next, look at how the vehicle is functioning. Problems indicate problems you may have in real life. The steering or brakes don&#8217;t work: you&#8217;re going too fast and are about to make a big mistake. The tires on the right side are flat: you&#8217;re afraid to move forward and take new actions. The starter won&#8217;t work: you need to renew your motivation and passion.</p>\n<p><b>Try asking yourself:</b> In what area do I feel disabled or powerless? Who did I give power to? How am I out of control? What in my life needs to work properly? What can I do to move freely?</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-19T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":207721},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:46:40+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-02-28T16:59:40+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:18+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Cognitive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"cognitive psychology for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"cognitive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Discover the fascinating field of cognitive psychology, including short- and long-term memory, problem-solving, and inventing new words.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Cognitive psychology is the study of all things to do with thinking. It’s the part of psychology that covers perception, attention, memory, knowledge, thinking, reasoning, decision-making and language. To study it, cognitive psychologists develop ingenious experiments that manipulate a small part of the cognitive system.","description":"Cognitive psychology is the study of all things to do with thinking. It’s the part of psychology that covers perception, attention, memory, knowledge, thinking, reasoning, decision-making and language. To study it, cognitive psychologists develop ingenious experiments that manipulate a small part of the cognitive system.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":8958,"name":"Peter J. Hills","slug":"peter-j-hills","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8958"}},{"authorId":8959,"name":"Michael Pake","slug":"michael-pake","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8959"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":138346,"title":"Understanding the Information Processing Model for Cognitive Psychology","slug":"understanding-the-information-processing-model-for-cognitive-psychology","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138346"}},{"articleId":138347,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Classifying Long-Term Memory","slug":"cognitive-psychology-classifying-long-term-memory","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138347"}},{"articleId":138341,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Looking Honestly into Lying","slug":"cognitive-psychology-looking-honestly-into-lying","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138341"}},{"articleId":138342,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Executing Executive Function & Cognitive Control","slug":"cognitive-psychology-executing-executive-function-cognitive-control","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138342"}},{"articleId":138343,"title":"Cognitive Psychology and Deciding to Solve Problems","slug":"cognitive-psychology-and-deciding-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138343"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281561,"slug":"cognitive-psychology-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119953210","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119953219-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/cognitive-psychology-for-dummies-cover-9781119953210-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Cognitive Psychology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<p><b data-author-id=\"8958\">Dr Peter J. 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","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8959"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119953210&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b2642ec2\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119953210&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b2643980\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":138346,"title":"Understanding the Information Processing Model for Cognitive Psychology","slug":"understanding-the-information-processing-model-for-cognitive-psychology","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138346"}},{"articleId":138345,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Working Short-Term Memory","slug":"cognitive-psychology-working-short-term-memory","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138345"}},{"articleId":138347,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Classifying Long-Term Memory","slug":"cognitive-psychology-classifying-long-term-memory","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138347"}},{"articleId":138344,"title":"Cognitive Psychology and Creating New Words","slug":"cognitive-psychology-and-creating-new-words","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138344"}},{"articleId":138343,"title":"Cognitive Psychology and Deciding to Solve Problems","slug":"cognitive-psychology-and-deciding-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138343"}}],"content":[{"title":"Understanding the information processing model for cognitive psychology","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Cognitive psychologists use the information processing model to explain cognition. This model assumes that human cognition is a lot like a computer and the way the human brain works is by processing information through a series of stages:</p>\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Perception: Input stage.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">People need to encode information from the world in order to process it and then respond to it appropriately. In part, perception is guided by experience, which changes the way people see the world. If information is attended to, it’s transferred from perception to memory.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Memory: Storage centre.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Information is stored in long-term memory and processed and used by short-term memory. All knowledge is stored in long-term memory.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Thinking: A high-level cognitive function.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Information from perception and memory is used to make decisions, to reason and to make deductions.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Language: A high-level output stage of cognition.</p>\n<p class=\"child-para\">Often, the results of thinking need to be acted upon in terms of speaking or writing.</p>\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504153.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.\" width=\"535\" height=\"209\" /></p>\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.</div>\n</div>\n</li>\n</ol>\n"},{"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Working Short-Term Memory","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Short-term memory is memory for things currently in mind. It’s the active state of memory in cognitive psychology, like the RAM on a computer. According to the <i>working memory model</i> of British psychologists Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch, different types of short-term memory exist:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Phonological loop:</b> The inner ear. This system comprises the<i> phonological store, </i>a short-term store for sounds, and an<i> articulatory rehearsal mechanism</i><i>,</i> which is where sounds are repeated for a short time to keep them active in memory.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Visuospatial sketchpad:</b> The inner eye. This system comprises the<i> visual cache, </i>a store for mental images, and an <i>inner scribe</i><i>,</i> which is a mechanism that plans sequences of actions.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Episodic buffer:</b> This system binds and integrates information into discrete pieces. The brain stores new discoveries and information by linking together how something looks with other sensory information and anything already known about it.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Central executive:</b> Like a computer’s central processing unit. It directs the resources of the remaining parts of working memory. It focuses attention on a particular task, switches attention between tasks and divides attention between tasks.</p>\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504155.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The working memory model of short-term memory.\" width=\"535\" height=\"311\" /></p>\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The working memory model of short-term memory.</div>\n</div>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Cognitive psychology: Classifying long-term memory","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Understanding long-term memory is essential in cognitive psychology. Long-term memory isn’t a unitary structure ‒ many different types of memory exist, which can independently be damaged due to brain injury. Research suggests the existence of the following different types of memory:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Episodic memory:</b> A conscious <i>declarative</i> (verbalisable) memory store for recent events that have occurred.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Autobiographic memory:</b> A declarative memory for all life events that have happened to you, usually important ones that are highly personal and emotional.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Semantic memory:</b> A declarative memory for all facts that you’ve accumulated throughout your lifetime.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Procedural memory:</b> An unconscious non-declarative memory for every skill or behaviour that you have.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Priming:</b> A non-declarative memory store due to the repetition of information and its effect on behaviour and perception.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Associative learning:</b> A non-declarative memory for unconscious associations formed between things and <i>conditioned</i><i> learning</i> (learning based on linking two stimuli ‒ such as light and sound ‒ together sometimes with a reward).</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Non-associative learning:</b> A non-declarative memory store for habits.</p>\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504157.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The different types of long-term memory.\" width=\"535\" height=\"175\" /></p>\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The different types of long-term memory.</div>\n</div>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Cognitive psychology and creating new words","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Cognitive psychology can provide insight in how people create new words. Language is a human form of communication ‒ it’s highly complex, creative, spontaneous and constantly changing. When people create new words, they usually do so in a consistent way such that new words fit with the grammatical structure. The following rules and findings apply to how new words and phrases (see figure for how to generate new insults!) are created:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Inflectional morphology:</b> In English, adding an ‘-s’ to the end of a word automatically makes it plural, even if the word is new or has never been pluralised before: for example, the made-up animal ‘wug’ would be pluralised to ‘wugs’.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Derivational morphology:</b> When words are created taking the name of someone or something and using that to describe something similar: for example ‘Corbynistas’ to represent followers of the politician Jeremy Corbyn.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Combining words:</b> Two words can be linked together that have never previously been linked together in order to form a new concept: for example ‘keyboard’ is the combination of ‘key’ and ‘board’.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Creating new open-class words:</b><i> Open-class words</i> are nouns, verbs and adjectives, which people can easily create when the need arises. For example, ‘tweeting’ is a new word created from the social media device Twitter.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Creating new closed-class words:</b> <i>Closed-class words</i> are functional words, such as articles and pronouns. People can’t easily add new ones to language: for example, ‘Peh’ as a singular but gender-neutral form of ‘he’ or ‘she’.</p>\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 337px;\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504159.image0.jpg\" alt=\"Insult generator for 10 million insults.\" width=\"337\" height=\"400\" /></p>\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">Insult generator for 10 million insults.</div>\n</div>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Cognitive psychology and deciding to solve problems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Humans are thinking animals and cognitive psychologists are aware that people make decisions all the time. These decisions can be trivial (what should I have as a snack?) or much more life-changing (should I marry my current boyfriend?). Humans don’t appear to be that rational and use a number of mental shortcuts (called <i>heuristics</i>) to help them make decisions (quite often badly):</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Availability heuristic:</b> People make decisions based on how easy they find thinking of examples or outcomes, which leads to poor decisions if only certain information is easily available.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Anchoring:</b> People often make decisions based on the piece of information they’re presented with first.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Ignoring the base-rate:</b> People tend to ignore <i>base-rate statistical</i><i> information</i> (that is, information about the frequency of particular events occurring), because it complicates the decision-making process.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Familiarity heuristic:</b> People’s decisions are biased due to past experience. These experiences influence how they make decisions, instead of focusing on the novelty of the current situation (see figure for an example where familiarity and experience can impact people’s ability to solve a problem).</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Recognition heuristic:</b> People make decisions based on their recognition memory. When they see something they recognise, they’re likely to believe that it’s better or more common than something they don’t recognise.</p>\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 486px;\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504161.image0.jpg\" alt=\"A problem to solve that’s often affected by people’s familiarity with the objects. You&amp;\" width=\"486\" height=\"400\" /></p>\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A problem to solve that’s often affected by people’s familiarity with the objects. You’re given a box of drawing pins (thumb tacks), a candle and a book of matches. Your task is to fix the candle to a wall. Tip: think beyond your assumptions about these items’ normal uses.</div>\n</div>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-06-28T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":207388},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:55:58+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-02-14T20:56:26+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:06+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"positive psychology for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"This Cheat Sheet summarizes some of the ways positive psychology helps improve people's lives, including resilience, and much more.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"In positive psychology, science tries to answer questions about what makes people happy, what a good life is, and how to increase life satisfaction. This Cheat Sheet gives you some ways in which you can make positive psychology work for you.","description":"In positive psychology, science tries to answer questions about what makes people happy, what a good life is, and how to increase life satisfaction. This Cheat Sheet gives you some ways in which you can make positive psychology work for you.","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208727,"title":"Sports Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"sports-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208727"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[{"title":"For Those Seeking Peace of Mind","slug":"for-those-seeking-peace-of-mind","collectionId":287563}],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1ac3df9\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1ac4843\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":192057,"title":"Using Positive Psychology to AIM for a Positive Life","slug":"using-positive-psychology-to-aim-for-a-positive-life","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192057"}},{"articleId":192060,"title":"How Positive Psychology Can Help at Work","slug":"how-positive-psychology-can-help-at-work","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192060"}},{"articleId":192058,"title":"Learning Resilience through Positive Psychology","slug":"learning-resilience-through-positive-psychology","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192058"}},{"articleId":192056,"title":"Using Positive Psychology to Respond Healthily","slug":"using-positive-psychology-to-respond-healthily","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192056"}},{"articleId":192055,"title":"Identifying Your Signature Strengths with Positive Psychology","slug":"identifying-your-signature-strengths-with-positive-psychology","categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/192055"}}],"content":[{"title":"Using positive psychology to AIM for a positive life","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>According to positive psychology, you need to take three main steps to achieve health and well-being. They are covered by the acronym <b>AIM</b>:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>A</b>ttending: Pay attention to the genuinely good stuff that happens to you. Don’t just filter it out.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>I</b>nterpreting: Don’t always view experiences in a negative light. See the positive wherever you can.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>M</b>emorizing: Remember positive events and paint positive mental pictures of your experiences.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Learning resilience through positive psychology","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>There are seven main skills that can help you bounce back from any adverse experiences you may go through. Keep them handy to stay resilient.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Learnable Skill of Resilience</th>\n<th>Applying the Skill</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Emotional awareness /Regulation</td>\n<td>Identifying what you’re feeling.<br />\nControlling your emotions.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Impulse control</td>\n<td>Tolerating uncertainty.<br />\nTaking time to think about decisions/actions.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Optimism</td>\n<td>Having a realistically optimistic explanatory style.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Causal analysis</td>\n<td>Looking at problems from all angles.<br />\nConsidering all the factors.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Empathy</td>\n<td>Recognizing and understanding the emotions of others.<br />\nBuilding social support through well-maintained relationships.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Self-efficacy</td>\n<td>Knowing your own strengths.<br />\nUsing those strengths to cope with adversity.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Reaching out</td>\n<td>Taking appropriate risks.<br />\nTrying new things.<br />\nAccepting failure.</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"Using positive psychology to respond in healthy ways","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Remember that harmful repetitive habits are the bane of the well-lived life. Taking the steps in this table can help you to tackle bad habits head-on.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Habit</th>\n<th>Healthy Response</th>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stop being angry.</td>\n<td>Anger is a primitive emotion geared to the fight or flight<br />\nstress reaction. Cut down the amount of time you spend feeling<br />\nhostile.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cheer up, it may never happen.</td>\n<td>Start looking on the bright side of life. Find the joy in<br />\nordinary things. Don’t waste time on negativity.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Get a life.</td>\n<td>Engaging in activities with other people is good for you. Having a variety of activities to fall back on can reduce the negative impact of challenging times.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cut back on harmful habits.</td>\n<td>Habits like drinking too much or smoking, especially when they’re connected to feeling low, are really destructive. Get help to change.</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"Identifying your signature strengths with positive psychology","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Psychologists have identified 24 key strengths under six main headings. You have at least some of these — you really do. Identify them by using this list.</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Wisdom and knowledge:</b> creativity, judgment, curiosity, love of learning, perspective</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Courage:</b> bravery, perseverance, integrity, enthusiasm</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Love:</b> intimacy, kindness, sociability</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Justice:</b> sense of responsibility, fairness, leadership</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Temperance:</b> forgiveness, humility, caution, self-control</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Transcendence:</b> appreciation, gratitude, optimism, humor, spirituality</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-08-31T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208951},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T07:08:13+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-12-29T20:00:16+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:59+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Looking Honestly into Lying","strippedTitle":"cognitive psychology: looking honestly into lying","slug":"cognitive-psychology-looking-honestly-into-lying","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Lying is a deliberate attempt to mislead someone verbally or by conveying a false impression through body language.Cognitive psychologists are particularly inte","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"<i>Lying</i> is a deliberate attempt to mislead someone verbally or by conveying a false impression through body language.\r\n\r\nCognitive psychologists are particularly interested in lying, because it’s a special kind of thought process: unusually, it’s <i>not</i> designed to communicate truthfully with other people. Normal thought and communication is based on trying to provide accurate information (for example, a textbook wouldn’t be much good if it was designed not to tell the truth). This difference makes lying an unusual process.\r\n\r\nPeople lie at least twice a day and in approximately one-fifth of all interactions lasting more than ten minutes. Men and women lie an equal amount, but women are slightly better at detecting lying (at least among their same-sex friends).\r\n\r\nSome people are more likely to lie than others (such as the manipulative and Machiavellian) and some are better at lying than others (the physically attractive and self-confident). Certain groups of people tend not to lie, such as people with a sense of social responsibility and those suffering from depression.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Understanding the cognitive psychology of lying</h2>\r\nAlthough lying is quite frequent, cognitive psychologists have found that it’s a challenging process that demands a great deal of cognitive resources.\r\n\r\nResearch consistently shows that lying takes longer than telling the truth — honest! The reason is that lying involves two stages: the decision to lie and then the construction of the lie.\r\n\r\nWhen someone asks a question to which a person may respond with a lie, the truth is more \"active\" in the mind of the liar than the lie (unless it’s a highly practiced lie — \"We won’t raise taxes or cut benefits!\"). Therefore, if the person decides to lie, he must suppress the truth, which requires cognitive effort. He must then search his memory to produce a lie, using logic to construct a believable one; he also requires a theory of mind (that is, he has to understand how someone else may see the world).\r\n\r\nNeuroscientists have discovered that when people are lying, different parts of the brain are active compared to when they’re recalling truthful events. Typically, when people are lying their pre-frontal cortex displays activity, which is the same brain region involved in high-level reasoning.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Developing the ability to lie</h2>\r\nGiven that lying depends on the liar’s theory of mind and his pre-frontal cortex, it’s no wonder that the ability to lie develops with age.\r\n\r\nThe <i>temptation resistance paradigm</i><i> </i>is a typical experiment employed to test children’s fibbing abilities<i>.</i> They’re left alone in a room with a tempting item (such as a chocolate cake or a toy) that the experimenter tells them not to touch. Most young children (under 4 years of age) can’t inhibit the behavior and they touch the object. When asked whether they touched the object, young children can’t verbalize a convincing lie — they’re too creative and may accidentally indicate the truth in their lie (for example, \"a mysterious man entered the room and touched it\"). This indicates that young children are less able to lie verbally than adults.\r\n\r\nThe ability to lie develops in parallel with executive functions and theory of mind, and it tends to occur earlier than the ability to construct and maintain a believable lie. From about 7 years of age, children are able to maintain a lie.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Lying in the animal kingdom</h2>\r\nUntil relatively recent, biologists believed that animals were unable to lie. Work by psychologists, however, shows that many animal species can lie.\r\n\r\nIn one example, researchers partially hid a grapefruit in a chimpanzee enclosure. They then showed the chimpanzees the empty grapefruit box. The chimpanzees were excited and went in search of the grapefruits as a group. They displayed no obvious detection of the grapefruit. But later in the day, one of the chimpanzees (when alone) went straight to where the grapefruit was buried, dug it up and ate it. Clearly it had seen the fruit earlier but didn’t want to reveal that it knew the location, because the others would try to steal it.\r\n\r\nApes trained to use sign language, and who are tested in a similar way as the temptation resistance paradigm, lie in a similar manner to young children. In one classic example, a gorilla was told not to eat a particular fruit, and then the experimenter left the room. The gorilla promptly ate the fruit. When the experimenter returned, the gorilla denied eating the fruit. The limitations of the gorilla’s language mean that researchers will never know whether the gorilla could construct a believable lie as to what happened to the fruit, but it was clearly able to lie about eating it.","description":"<i>Lying</i> is a deliberate attempt to mislead someone verbally or by conveying a false impression through body language.\r\n\r\nCognitive psychologists are particularly interested in lying, because it’s a special kind of thought process: unusually, it’s <i>not</i> designed to communicate truthfully with other people. Normal thought and communication is based on trying to provide accurate information (for example, a textbook wouldn’t be much good if it was designed not to tell the truth). This difference makes lying an unusual process.\r\n\r\nPeople lie at least twice a day and in approximately one-fifth of all interactions lasting more than ten minutes. Men and women lie an equal amount, but women are slightly better at detecting lying (at least among their same-sex friends).\r\n\r\nSome people are more likely to lie than others (such as the manipulative and Machiavellian) and some are better at lying than others (the physically attractive and self-confident). Certain groups of people tend not to lie, such as people with a sense of social responsibility and those suffering from depression.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Understanding the cognitive psychology of lying</h2>\r\nAlthough lying is quite frequent, cognitive psychologists have found that it’s a challenging process that demands a great deal of cognitive resources.\r\n\r\nResearch consistently shows that lying takes longer than telling the truth — honest! The reason is that lying involves two stages: the decision to lie and then the construction of the lie.\r\n\r\nWhen someone asks a question to which a person may respond with a lie, the truth is more \"active\" in the mind of the liar than the lie (unless it’s a highly practiced lie — \"We won’t raise taxes or cut benefits!\"). Therefore, if the person decides to lie, he must suppress the truth, which requires cognitive effort. He must then search his memory to produce a lie, using logic to construct a believable one; he also requires a theory of mind (that is, he has to understand how someone else may see the world).\r\n\r\nNeuroscientists have discovered that when people are lying, different parts of the brain are active compared to when they’re recalling truthful events. Typically, when people are lying their pre-frontal cortex displays activity, which is the same brain region involved in high-level reasoning.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Developing the ability to lie</h2>\r\nGiven that lying depends on the liar’s theory of mind and his pre-frontal cortex, it’s no wonder that the ability to lie develops with age.\r\n\r\nThe <i>temptation resistance paradigm</i><i> </i>is a typical experiment employed to test children’s fibbing abilities<i>.</i> They’re left alone in a room with a tempting item (such as a chocolate cake or a toy) that the experimenter tells them not to touch. Most young children (under 4 years of age) can’t inhibit the behavior and they touch the object. When asked whether they touched the object, young children can’t verbalize a convincing lie — they’re too creative and may accidentally indicate the truth in their lie (for example, \"a mysterious man entered the room and touched it\"). This indicates that young children are less able to lie verbally than adults.\r\n\r\nThe ability to lie develops in parallel with executive functions and theory of mind, and it tends to occur earlier than the ability to construct and maintain a believable lie. From about 7 years of age, children are able to maintain a lie.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Lying in the animal kingdom</h2>\r\nUntil relatively recent, biologists believed that animals were unable to lie. Work by psychologists, however, shows that many animal species can lie.\r\n\r\nIn one example, researchers partially hid a grapefruit in a chimpanzee enclosure. They then showed the chimpanzees the empty grapefruit box. The chimpanzees were excited and went in search of the grapefruits as a group. They displayed no obvious detection of the grapefruit. But later in the day, one of the chimpanzees (when alone) went straight to where the grapefruit was buried, dug it up and ate it. Clearly it had seen the fruit earlier but didn’t want to reveal that it knew the location, because the others would try to steal it.\r\n\r\nApes trained to use sign language, and who are tested in a similar way as the temptation resistance paradigm, lie in a similar manner to young children. In one classic example, a gorilla was told not to eat a particular fruit, and then the experimenter left the room. The gorilla promptly ate the fruit. When the experimenter returned, the gorilla denied eating the fruit. The limitations of the gorilla’s language mean that researchers will never know whether the gorilla could construct a believable lie as to what happened to the fruit, but it was clearly able to lie about eating it.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":8958,"name":"Peter J. Hills","slug":"peter-j-hills","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8958"}},{"authorId":8959,"name":"Michael Pake","slug":"michael-pake","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8959"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Understanding the cognitive psychology of lying","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Developing the ability to lie","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Lying in the animal kingdom","target":"#tab3"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":207388,"title":"Cognitive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"cognitive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207388"}},{"articleId":138346,"title":"Understanding the Information Processing Model for Cognitive Psychology","slug":"understanding-the-information-processing-model-for-cognitive-psychology","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138346"}},{"articleId":138347,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Classifying Long-Term Memory","slug":"cognitive-psychology-classifying-long-term-memory","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138347"}},{"articleId":138342,"title":"Cognitive Psychology: Executing Executive Function & Cognitive Control","slug":"cognitive-psychology-executing-executive-function-cognitive-control","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138342"}},{"articleId":138343,"title":"Cognitive Psychology and Deciding to Solve Problems","slug":"cognitive-psychology-and-deciding-to-solve-problems","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/138343"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281561,"slug":"cognitive-psychology-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119953210","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119953219-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119953219/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/cognitive-psychology-for-dummies-cover-9781119953210-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Cognitive Psychology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<p><b data-author-id=\"8958\">Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b data-author-id=\"8959\">Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":8958,"name":"Peter J. Hills","slug":"peter-j-hills","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8958"}},{"authorId":8959,"name":"Michael Pake","slug":"michael-pake","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8959"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119953210&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1320966\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119953210&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1321323\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-06-23T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":138341},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T14:40:29+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-12-28T17:21:28+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:58+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Human Differences: Culture, Gender, and Sexuality","strippedTitle":"human differences: culture, gender, and sexuality","slug":"human-differences-culture-gender-and-sexuality","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"In the field of psychology, three of the most salient differences among individuals are culture, gender, and sexuality/sexual orientation.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"\"Everybody is unique!\" is the mantra of the modern era. Many people pride themselves on being different and one of a kind — particularly in Western popular culture and media — and anybody spending any time studying and working with people will tell you there is a great deal of truth to this.\r\n\r\nThree of the most prominent, salient, and obvious variations among people are differences in culture, gender, and sexuality/sexual orientation.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Psychology and culture</h2>\r\nYou live in a truly global society. People are more connected than ever, the world seems smaller, and you can encounter an array of differences at a pace and scale never before seen in history. In the past, you might be lucky if you met someone from a different culture once a month (depending on where you lived). Now, you can meet people from all over the world on the bus, at Starbucks, or online.\r\n\r\nPsychology as a field would be incomplete without an understanding of how different cultural contexts influence individual minds and behavior. Cross-cultural psychologist John W. Berry at Queen's University in Canada proposes that much of what is known as \"psychology\" is what he calls \"culture bound\" and \"culture-blind\":\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Culture-bound: Psychology is most popular in Western societies (Europe, the United States, and Canada). As such, it has limited understanding of people outside of those regions — not exactly a universal science considering that the majority of the world's population lives outside of those areas.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Culture-blind: The psychology of Europe, the U.S., and Canada has a tendency to largely ignore the influence of culture on the mind and behavior.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nHow do you address these issues? Cross-cultural psychology is the study of how culture influences the mind and behavior. And when referencing \"culture,\" think on a societal level. This can be religious groups, ethnic groups, or even geographic groupings, such as \"Californian\" — and if you think there aren't different cultures in California compared to New York, just ask a New Yorker.\r\n<h3>Choosing a view: From the inside or out?</h3>\r\nTwo approaches that a researcher can use to gain insight and information from another culture and its practices are the <em>emic</em> and <em>etic</em> techniques, first developed by K.L. Pike in the 1960s.\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Emic: The <em>emic</em> method involves approaching a culture different from one's own without preconceived notions as an \"outsider\" and seeking to understand from the perspective of the \"insider\" of that culture. An example of an emic approach would be to investigate or collect data on intergroup conflict (for example, rival gangs in Los Angeles) from the perspective of the gang members themselves. This could be done by using a technique called the ethnographic interview, in which the research subject describes his or her experience as openly and freely as possible. An advantage to the emic approach is that it gives very authentic data, specific to a particular culture or group. A disadvantage is that the data or findings might not be applicable beyond that specific situation or group, posing a problem of generalization.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Etic: The <em>etic</em> method approaches understanding with all of the preconceived notions and methods of the \"outsider.\" An example of an etic approach would be to investigate or collect data on gang-versus-gang conflict by administering a series of personality tests to individual members that were developed for the general population. An advantage to the etic approach is that findings might be more generalizable; a disadvantage might be that outside bias might influence the interpretation of the findings.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">It is generally expected that a combined emic and etic approach is the best way to capture the complexities in cross-cultural research.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Exploring indigenous psychologies</h3>\r\nIs there a \"Japanese Psychology?\" Is there a \"Brazilian Psychology?\" Is there a \"Tamil Psychology?\" The short answer is yes. One of the goals of cross-cultural psychology is to look for variations in \"other\" cultures that are not present in \"our own.\"\r\n\r\nNot all mental disorders are found in all cultures; or, at the very least, the manifestation of specific disorders varies somewhat or to some degree. The hallucinations of schizophrenics, for example, vary by culture (seeing things versus hearing things, or smelling things).\r\n\r\nIndigenous psychology also studies culture-bound syndromes — mental disorders that are only recognized and manifest in specific cultures. Here are some of the more interesting ones:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Running amok (Malaysian origin): A sudden outburst of aggression or violence and running around wildly.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Falling out (African American; Caribbean): Alteration in consciousness including passing out in response to stress.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Susto (Mexico, Central America, South America): Displaced soul resulting from trauma.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Koro (Asia): A man's sudden grasping of his penis for fear that it will retract into the body. For a women, fear that her nipples may protract.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Pibloktog (Arctic and Inuit): Seizure, losing consciousness, amnesia, breaking furniture, eating feces, yelling obscenities.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nAnd something can be a norm in one culture that would be considered a disorder in another. For example, grieving in some cultures includes extended periods of mourning, not going out into public, wearing black, not remarrying, and not attending family events. These are expected norms. In Western cultures, this behavior might be diagnosed as depression.\r\n\r\nOther studies have noted other cross-cultural differences. For example, immigrants to North American from Haiti and Eastern Europe are less trusting of others than Western European Americans and African Americans. Asian Americans show fewer outwards signs of depression than European Americans, who clearly smile less and display more negative emotion when depressed.\r\n<h3>Looking for universals</h3>\r\nAre there psychological universals? Cross-culture studies have been conducted in a wide range of areas, such as developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and psychopathology. Cross-cultural similarities have been found for such phenomena as theory-of mind, counting ability in infants, and mate preferences (in almost all cultures studied, men value attractiveness and chastity more than women do, and women value status and financial prospects).\r\n\r\nUltimately, as can be found with many issues in psychology, the \"answer\" to the human universal versus cultural variability question is that broadly speaking, the components of the mind and human behavior can be thought of as (by varying degrees) both universal and variable across cultures.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Psychology and gender</h2>\r\nPerhaps the most simple and obvious human differences are sex and gender, male or female, masculine or feminine. Nearly all descriptions of other people when we talk about them, tell stories, describe them, or research them include an accounting of sex and gender.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\"><i>Sex</i> refers to an individual's biological status as either male or female, including anatomy. For the most part, you are born with your sex. <i>Gender</i> is not so cut and dry. Gender refers to the behavior and characteristics defining masculinity or femininity, which is understood to be psychologically, socially, and culturally constructed. Gender can be correlated with sex to some degree, but everyone knows people who are sexually male who are feminine in gender and vice versa.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Finding a place in the continuum</h3>\r\nGender manifests itself psychologically and behaviorally in what psychologists call gender roles. A <i>gender role</i> is a collection of social norms and expectations for a person who identifies or is identified as either masculine or feminine, man or woman. The presence of gender roles in societies gives rise to stereotypes and biases, prejudices, and judgments, of course. However, the world is still very \"gendered,\" and people are still pretty much viewed through the lens of gender role and gender role categories.\r\n\r\nPsychologist Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory as a way to characterize an individual's gender in relation to a scale. Bem's inventory identifies the following as characteristics typically associated with being masculine, feminine, or neutral:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Masculine: Acts as a leader, aggressive, ambitious, analytical, assertive, athletic, competitive, defends own beliefs, dominant, and forceful</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Feminine: Adaptable, affectionate, cheerful, does not use harsh language, gentle to needs of others, soft-spoken, tender, warm, compassionate, and loyal</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Neutral: Adaptable, conscientious, friendly, helpful, jealous, moody, secretive, solemn, theatrical, and unpredictable</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nThere is no value judgment associated with Bem's breakdown. Certainly both masculine and feminine traits are valuable in their own right, and certainly their utility and usefulness will vary by situation and context.\r\n<h3>Looking at gender differences</h3>\r\nGender stereotypes abound. Girls can't do math. Men are uncaring. We know that stereotypes are often a shortcut for critical thought and all too often take us down the wrong road. But consistent differences between men and women have been found in research, such as higher rates of aggression and violence in men, higher rates of substance abuse in men, and higher rates of depression in women.\r\n\r\nWomen's and men's leadership styles vary as well, with women adopting a more democratic and participatory approach and men adopting a more autocratic and directive approach.\r\n\r\nAt one point in history, scientists claimed that women had inferior brains. However, modern neuroscience demonstrates no difference in general intelligence between men and women. Some studies suggest that men perform better at spatial and math abilities while women have stronger verbal abilities, but these findings are so small that they are irrelevant in the real world. So, why are there so few women in science and technology? If it's not biology, then is it culture, family influence, or sexism? The answer to this question has yet to be found.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Psychology and sexuality</h2>\r\nWhom are you sexually attracted to? Sexual attraction is part of what defines a person's <i>sexuality</i><i>. </i>A person's sexuality consists of his or her\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Sexual biology (for example, genitals and arousal)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Psychosocial functioning (attractions, emotions, and beliefs)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Behavior (masturbation and intercourse)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Clinical aspects (erectile dysfunction and fetishes)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Cultural aspects (prohibitions of premarital sex or gender roles)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h3>Laying the building blocks of sexuality</h3>\r\nThe development of sexuality is thought to begin in childhood, or at least the roots of adult sexuality are thought to come from childhood.\r\n<h4>Infants, toddlers, and young kids</h4>\r\nOf course, one's sex first becomes evident at birth (or younger if you get a fetal ultrasound), thus marking the early stages of sexuality. A person's sex carries with it biological predispositions (attraction tendencies) and cultural expectations (he's going to be a \"ladies' man\"). The sexuality development process is just beginning. An infant's closeness with parents (being hugged, cuddled, bathed, and dressed) is a precursor to sexuality and it's possible that disruptions or unhealthy experiences in these interactions can lead to difficulties with sexuality later in life. (These are not seen as \"sexual\" experiences for an infant but rather precursors to later developed sexuality, as they relate to physical closeness.)\r\n\r\nAs infants grow into \"kids,\" there is a growing awareness and curiosity about their bodies and genitals. It is not unusual to see children \"play\" with their genitals and engage in \"show\" games to others. They may even stimulate themselves by rubbing their genitals against toys or other objects. Simultaneously, there is an awareness of parental reactions and attitudes toward the body in general and genitals in particular. These experiences can range from shaming, to embarrassment, to laughter, to acceptance. Keep in mind that an overly negative tone should be avoided.\r\n\r\nAt some point, children inevitably asking how babies are made, and how parents respond to this varies widely. Some give a biologically informed talk, whereas others engage in elaborate fairy tales. It is best not to avoid this discussion because a curious child is bound to find out one way or another; parents should want to be in control of their child's access to that type of information. Crushes and attractions start to emerge and children may even talk about \"marrying\" or \"having a boyfriend\" in reference to a class or playmate.\r\n<h4>Approaching adolescence</h4>\r\nAs children approach adolescence they have a fairly clear understanding of the anatomical differences between boys and girls. Attitudes toward nudity in the home can change as children become more \"mature.\" Kids may engage in \"playing house\" or \"doctor\" as a way to explore their sexual arousal, attractions, and bodies. Experimentation may be with either gender. This type of sex play is not generally considered harmful under ordinary and relatively innocent circumstances.\r\n\r\nHowever, behavior that appears to be \"age-inappropriate\" such as overly adult-like actions and adult sexual language use may be a warning sign of possible inappropriate sexual exposure or abuse. Also look for the following warnings that a child may be being sexually abused:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Refusal to change for gym or to participate in physical activities</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Reluctance to be left alone with a particular person or people</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Sexual knowledge, language, and/or behaviors that are unusual and inappropriate for their age</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nThere could be other reasons for these behaviors, but take seriously any suspicion of sexual abuse of children.\r\n<h4>Puberty and adulthood</h4>\r\nPuberty marks a significant stage of sexual development. Bodies and physiology go through immense changes. Surveys suggest that the average age of first intercourse is 16 years old for boys and 17 years old for girls. Teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases become real concerns as well. These issues remain ongoing into adulthood.\r\n<h3>Defining healthy sexuality</h3>\r\nHaving a \"healthy sex life\" is common fodder for daytime talk shows, books and magazines. Defining healthy sexuality is not about moralizing or upholding any particular set of cultural values per se, but is seen as a \"health issue\" and is defined in terms of a healthy adult relationship in which the rights, well-being, and satisfaction of all involved is central.\r\n<h3>Deciding what's attractive</h3>\r\nEvery year, people spend billions of dollars trying to make themselves more attractive. And people also want someone \"good-looking\" to be with. It's not just physical attributes, personality plays a big role in who you are attracted to, as do a host of other attributes such as moral values and career. Where do our attraction preferences come from?\r\n\r\nOnce again, nature and nurture are at play in the development of sexual attraction. From a biological (nature) perspective, sexual attraction is referred to as <i>sexual selection</i> and is understood within an evolutionary context. Sexual attraction is a function of keeping the species alive!\r\n\r\nBut attraction is immensely individualized and heavily culturally influenced. What might make one person attractive to one person and not another is subjective. Research has turned up some features common to both female and male attractiveness, however, such as financial stability, waist-to-hip ratio (curvaceousness) in women, and the \"inverted triangle\" (shoulders, chest, waist) for men. However, these must not be oversold. Not everyone likes blondes, or curves, or muscles, or . . . you get the idea.\r\n<h3>Getting your bearings on sexual orientation</h3>\r\nThere is great variety in sexual attraction, but one determinant that plays the biggest role is <i>sexual orientation</i>, defined as an individual's patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. Sexual orientation exists on a continuum with three main orientations: heterosexual (attractions to the opposite sex), gay/lesbian (attractions to the same sex as oneself), and bisexual (attractions to both men and women).\r\n<p class=\"Tip\">Sexual orientation is considered separate from one's biological sex and gender identity. You could be a \"feminine\" (gender) male (sex) who is attracted to women (heterosexual) or a \"masculine\" woman attracted to women.</p>\r\nThe causes of sexual orientation have yet to be firmly discovered through scientific research. It is considered both biologically determined and environmentally shaped. Research shows the relative influence of such variables as genetics, hormones, and cultural influences, but no one factor has been crowned \"the cause.\"\r\n\r\nSome people have judged that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is a lifestyle \"choice\" that a person makes, but many gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women report feeling as if they had \"no choice\" and simply knew how they felt from an early age. They simply were attracted to whom they were attracted to, period.\r\n\r\nUntil 1973, being gay or lesbian was considered a mental disorder and was diagnosable by psychiatrists with the aim of providing \"treatment.\" Mainstream psychology now considers these sexual orientations as normal variations of human sexuality. These are not disordered people — just people.\r\n\r\nIt is important to note that prejudice and discrimination continue to negatively impact members of the LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered) community, and these influences can lead to stress-related difficulties. Rather than viewing these sexual orientations as disorders, psychology has come to focus on helping individuals in the LGBTQ community overcome and cope with discrimination.\r\n\r\nPsychologists have developed programs focused on helping teens to \"come out,\" especially those in communities that still have a difficult time accepting people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. Psychologists also explore gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered social and identity development.\r\n\r\nTherapies and therapists claiming to be able to change an individual's sexual orientation (for example, if a man no longer wishes to \"be gay\") have not been demonstrated to be effective from a scientific perspective. Such \"treatments\" are considered outside the mainstream, and are not supported by the American Psychological Association.","description":"\"Everybody is unique!\" is the mantra of the modern era. Many people pride themselves on being different and one of a kind — particularly in Western popular culture and media — and anybody spending any time studying and working with people will tell you there is a great deal of truth to this.\r\n\r\nThree of the most prominent, salient, and obvious variations among people are differences in culture, gender, and sexuality/sexual orientation.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Psychology and culture</h2>\r\nYou live in a truly global society. People are more connected than ever, the world seems smaller, and you can encounter an array of differences at a pace and scale never before seen in history. In the past, you might be lucky if you met someone from a different culture once a month (depending on where you lived). Now, you can meet people from all over the world on the bus, at Starbucks, or online.\r\n\r\nPsychology as a field would be incomplete without an understanding of how different cultural contexts influence individual minds and behavior. Cross-cultural psychologist John W. Berry at Queen's University in Canada proposes that much of what is known as \"psychology\" is what he calls \"culture bound\" and \"culture-blind\":\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Culture-bound: Psychology is most popular in Western societies (Europe, the United States, and Canada). As such, it has limited understanding of people outside of those regions — not exactly a universal science considering that the majority of the world's population lives outside of those areas.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Culture-blind: The psychology of Europe, the U.S., and Canada has a tendency to largely ignore the influence of culture on the mind and behavior.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nHow do you address these issues? Cross-cultural psychology is the study of how culture influences the mind and behavior. And when referencing \"culture,\" think on a societal level. This can be religious groups, ethnic groups, or even geographic groupings, such as \"Californian\" — and if you think there aren't different cultures in California compared to New York, just ask a New Yorker.\r\n<h3>Choosing a view: From the inside or out?</h3>\r\nTwo approaches that a researcher can use to gain insight and information from another culture and its practices are the <em>emic</em> and <em>etic</em> techniques, first developed by K.L. Pike in the 1960s.\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Emic: The <em>emic</em> method involves approaching a culture different from one's own without preconceived notions as an \"outsider\" and seeking to understand from the perspective of the \"insider\" of that culture. An example of an emic approach would be to investigate or collect data on intergroup conflict (for example, rival gangs in Los Angeles) from the perspective of the gang members themselves. This could be done by using a technique called the ethnographic interview, in which the research subject describes his or her experience as openly and freely as possible. An advantage to the emic approach is that it gives very authentic data, specific to a particular culture or group. A disadvantage is that the data or findings might not be applicable beyond that specific situation or group, posing a problem of generalization.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Etic: The <em>etic</em> method approaches understanding with all of the preconceived notions and methods of the \"outsider.\" An example of an etic approach would be to investigate or collect data on gang-versus-gang conflict by administering a series of personality tests to individual members that were developed for the general population. An advantage to the etic approach is that findings might be more generalizable; a disadvantage might be that outside bias might influence the interpretation of the findings.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">It is generally expected that a combined emic and etic approach is the best way to capture the complexities in cross-cultural research.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Exploring indigenous psychologies</h3>\r\nIs there a \"Japanese Psychology?\" Is there a \"Brazilian Psychology?\" Is there a \"Tamil Psychology?\" The short answer is yes. One of the goals of cross-cultural psychology is to look for variations in \"other\" cultures that are not present in \"our own.\"\r\n\r\nNot all mental disorders are found in all cultures; or, at the very least, the manifestation of specific disorders varies somewhat or to some degree. The hallucinations of schizophrenics, for example, vary by culture (seeing things versus hearing things, or smelling things).\r\n\r\nIndigenous psychology also studies culture-bound syndromes — mental disorders that are only recognized and manifest in specific cultures. Here are some of the more interesting ones:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Running amok (Malaysian origin): A sudden outburst of aggression or violence and running around wildly.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Falling out (African American; Caribbean): Alteration in consciousness including passing out in response to stress.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Susto (Mexico, Central America, South America): Displaced soul resulting from trauma.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Koro (Asia): A man's sudden grasping of his penis for fear that it will retract into the body. For a women, fear that her nipples may protract.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Pibloktog (Arctic and Inuit): Seizure, losing consciousness, amnesia, breaking furniture, eating feces, yelling obscenities.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nAnd something can be a norm in one culture that would be considered a disorder in another. For example, grieving in some cultures includes extended periods of mourning, not going out into public, wearing black, not remarrying, and not attending family events. These are expected norms. In Western cultures, this behavior might be diagnosed as depression.\r\n\r\nOther studies have noted other cross-cultural differences. For example, immigrants to North American from Haiti and Eastern Europe are less trusting of others than Western European Americans and African Americans. Asian Americans show fewer outwards signs of depression than European Americans, who clearly smile less and display more negative emotion when depressed.\r\n<h3>Looking for universals</h3>\r\nAre there psychological universals? Cross-culture studies have been conducted in a wide range of areas, such as developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and psychopathology. Cross-cultural similarities have been found for such phenomena as theory-of mind, counting ability in infants, and mate preferences (in almost all cultures studied, men value attractiveness and chastity more than women do, and women value status and financial prospects).\r\n\r\nUltimately, as can be found with many issues in psychology, the \"answer\" to the human universal versus cultural variability question is that broadly speaking, the components of the mind and human behavior can be thought of as (by varying degrees) both universal and variable across cultures.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Psychology and gender</h2>\r\nPerhaps the most simple and obvious human differences are sex and gender, male or female, masculine or feminine. Nearly all descriptions of other people when we talk about them, tell stories, describe them, or research them include an accounting of sex and gender.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\"><i>Sex</i> refers to an individual's biological status as either male or female, including anatomy. For the most part, you are born with your sex. <i>Gender</i> is not so cut and dry. Gender refers to the behavior and characteristics defining masculinity or femininity, which is understood to be psychologically, socially, and culturally constructed. Gender can be correlated with sex to some degree, but everyone knows people who are sexually male who are feminine in gender and vice versa.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Finding a place in the continuum</h3>\r\nGender manifests itself psychologically and behaviorally in what psychologists call gender roles. A <i>gender role</i> is a collection of social norms and expectations for a person who identifies or is identified as either masculine or feminine, man or woman. The presence of gender roles in societies gives rise to stereotypes and biases, prejudices, and judgments, of course. However, the world is still very \"gendered,\" and people are still pretty much viewed through the lens of gender role and gender role categories.\r\n\r\nPsychologist Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory as a way to characterize an individual's gender in relation to a scale. Bem's inventory identifies the following as characteristics typically associated with being masculine, feminine, or neutral:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Masculine: Acts as a leader, aggressive, ambitious, analytical, assertive, athletic, competitive, defends own beliefs, dominant, and forceful</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Feminine: Adaptable, affectionate, cheerful, does not use harsh language, gentle to needs of others, soft-spoken, tender, warm, compassionate, and loyal</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Neutral: Adaptable, conscientious, friendly, helpful, jealous, moody, secretive, solemn, theatrical, and unpredictable</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nThere is no value judgment associated with Bem's breakdown. Certainly both masculine and feminine traits are valuable in their own right, and certainly their utility and usefulness will vary by situation and context.\r\n<h3>Looking at gender differences</h3>\r\nGender stereotypes abound. Girls can't do math. Men are uncaring. We know that stereotypes are often a shortcut for critical thought and all too often take us down the wrong road. But consistent differences between men and women have been found in research, such as higher rates of aggression and violence in men, higher rates of substance abuse in men, and higher rates of depression in women.\r\n\r\nWomen's and men's leadership styles vary as well, with women adopting a more democratic and participatory approach and men adopting a more autocratic and directive approach.\r\n\r\nAt one point in history, scientists claimed that women had inferior brains. However, modern neuroscience demonstrates no difference in general intelligence between men and women. Some studies suggest that men perform better at spatial and math abilities while women have stronger verbal abilities, but these findings are so small that they are irrelevant in the real world. So, why are there so few women in science and technology? If it's not biology, then is it culture, family influence, or sexism? The answer to this question has yet to be found.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Psychology and sexuality</h2>\r\nWhom are you sexually attracted to? Sexual attraction is part of what defines a person's <i>sexuality</i><i>. </i>A person's sexuality consists of his or her\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Sexual biology (for example, genitals and arousal)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Psychosocial functioning (attractions, emotions, and beliefs)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Behavior (masturbation and intercourse)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Clinical aspects (erectile dysfunction and fetishes)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Cultural aspects (prohibitions of premarital sex or gender roles)</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h3>Laying the building blocks of sexuality</h3>\r\nThe development of sexuality is thought to begin in childhood, or at least the roots of adult sexuality are thought to come from childhood.\r\n<h4>Infants, toddlers, and young kids</h4>\r\nOf course, one's sex first becomes evident at birth (or younger if you get a fetal ultrasound), thus marking the early stages of sexuality. A person's sex carries with it biological predispositions (attraction tendencies) and cultural expectations (he's going to be a \"ladies' man\"). The sexuality development process is just beginning. An infant's closeness with parents (being hugged, cuddled, bathed, and dressed) is a precursor to sexuality and it's possible that disruptions or unhealthy experiences in these interactions can lead to difficulties with sexuality later in life. (These are not seen as \"sexual\" experiences for an infant but rather precursors to later developed sexuality, as they relate to physical closeness.)\r\n\r\nAs infants grow into \"kids,\" there is a growing awareness and curiosity about their bodies and genitals. It is not unusual to see children \"play\" with their genitals and engage in \"show\" games to others. They may even stimulate themselves by rubbing their genitals against toys or other objects. Simultaneously, there is an awareness of parental reactions and attitudes toward the body in general and genitals in particular. These experiences can range from shaming, to embarrassment, to laughter, to acceptance. Keep in mind that an overly negative tone should be avoided.\r\n\r\nAt some point, children inevitably asking how babies are made, and how parents respond to this varies widely. Some give a biologically informed talk, whereas others engage in elaborate fairy tales. It is best not to avoid this discussion because a curious child is bound to find out one way or another; parents should want to be in control of their child's access to that type of information. Crushes and attractions start to emerge and children may even talk about \"marrying\" or \"having a boyfriend\" in reference to a class or playmate.\r\n<h4>Approaching adolescence</h4>\r\nAs children approach adolescence they have a fairly clear understanding of the anatomical differences between boys and girls. Attitudes toward nudity in the home can change as children become more \"mature.\" Kids may engage in \"playing house\" or \"doctor\" as a way to explore their sexual arousal, attractions, and bodies. Experimentation may be with either gender. This type of sex play is not generally considered harmful under ordinary and relatively innocent circumstances.\r\n\r\nHowever, behavior that appears to be \"age-inappropriate\" such as overly adult-like actions and adult sexual language use may be a warning sign of possible inappropriate sexual exposure or abuse. Also look for the following warnings that a child may be being sexually abused:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Refusal to change for gym or to participate in physical activities</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Reluctance to be left alone with a particular person or people</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\">Sexual knowledge, language, and/or behaviors that are unusual and inappropriate for their age</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nThere could be other reasons for these behaviors, but take seriously any suspicion of sexual abuse of children.\r\n<h4>Puberty and adulthood</h4>\r\nPuberty marks a significant stage of sexual development. Bodies and physiology go through immense changes. Surveys suggest that the average age of first intercourse is 16 years old for boys and 17 years old for girls. Teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases become real concerns as well. These issues remain ongoing into adulthood.\r\n<h3>Defining healthy sexuality</h3>\r\nHaving a \"healthy sex life\" is common fodder for daytime talk shows, books and magazines. Defining healthy sexuality is not about moralizing or upholding any particular set of cultural values per se, but is seen as a \"health issue\" and is defined in terms of a healthy adult relationship in which the rights, well-being, and satisfaction of all involved is central.\r\n<h3>Deciding what's attractive</h3>\r\nEvery year, people spend billions of dollars trying to make themselves more attractive. And people also want someone \"good-looking\" to be with. It's not just physical attributes, personality plays a big role in who you are attracted to, as do a host of other attributes such as moral values and career. Where do our attraction preferences come from?\r\n\r\nOnce again, nature and nurture are at play in the development of sexual attraction. From a biological (nature) perspective, sexual attraction is referred to as <i>sexual selection</i> and is understood within an evolutionary context. Sexual attraction is a function of keeping the species alive!\r\n\r\nBut attraction is immensely individualized and heavily culturally influenced. What might make one person attractive to one person and not another is subjective. Research has turned up some features common to both female and male attractiveness, however, such as financial stability, waist-to-hip ratio (curvaceousness) in women, and the \"inverted triangle\" (shoulders, chest, waist) for men. However, these must not be oversold. Not everyone likes blondes, or curves, or muscles, or . . . you get the idea.\r\n<h3>Getting your bearings on sexual orientation</h3>\r\nThere is great variety in sexual attraction, but one determinant that plays the biggest role is <i>sexual orientation</i>, defined as an individual's patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. Sexual orientation exists on a continuum with three main orientations: heterosexual (attractions to the opposite sex), gay/lesbian (attractions to the same sex as oneself), and bisexual (attractions to both men and women).\r\n<p class=\"Tip\">Sexual orientation is considered separate from one's biological sex and gender identity. You could be a \"feminine\" (gender) male (sex) who is attracted to women (heterosexual) or a \"masculine\" woman attracted to women.</p>\r\nThe causes of sexual orientation have yet to be firmly discovered through scientific research. It is considered both biologically determined and environmentally shaped. Research shows the relative influence of such variables as genetics, hormones, and cultural influences, but no one factor has been crowned \"the cause.\"\r\n\r\nSome people have judged that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is a lifestyle \"choice\" that a person makes, but many gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women report feeling as if they had \"no choice\" and simply knew how they felt from an early age. They simply were attracted to whom they were attracted to, period.\r\n\r\nUntil 1973, being gay or lesbian was considered a mental disorder and was diagnosable by psychiatrists with the aim of providing \"treatment.\" Mainstream psychology now considers these sexual orientations as normal variations of human sexuality. These are not disordered people — just people.\r\n\r\nIt is important to note that prejudice and discrimination continue to negatively impact members of the LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered) community, and these influences can lead to stress-related difficulties. Rather than viewing these sexual orientations as disorders, psychology has come to focus on helping individuals in the LGBTQ community overcome and cope with discrimination.\r\n\r\nPsychologists have developed programs focused on helping teens to \"come out,\" especially those in communities that still have a difficult time accepting people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. Psychologists also explore gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered social and identity development.\r\n\r\nTherapies and therapists claiming to be able to change an individual's sexual orientation (for example, if a man no longer wishes to \"be gay\") have not been demonstrated to be effective from a scientific perspective. Such \"treatments\" are considered outside the mainstream, and are not supported by the American Psychological Association.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9556,"name":"Adam Cash","slug":"adam-cash","description":" <p><b>Adam Cash</b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9556"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Psychology and culture","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Psychology and gender","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Psychology and sexuality","target":"#tab3"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":207964,"title":"Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207964"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282513,"slug":"psychology-for-dummies-3rd-edition","isbn":"9781119700296","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119700299-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/psychology-for-dummies-3rd-edition-cover-9781119700296-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Psychology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9556\">Adam Cash</b></b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9556,"name":"Adam Cash","slug":"adam-cash","description":" <p><b>Adam Cash</b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9556"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119700296&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b123080e\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119700296&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b123113b\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-12-28T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":164470},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T13:57:02+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-12-28T17:07:57+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:58+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"2 Psychological Tests to Measure Intelligence and Neuropsychological and Cognitive Ability","strippedTitle":"2 psychological tests to measure intelligence and neuropsychological and cognitive ability","slug":"2-psychological-tests-to-measure-intelligence-and-neuropsychological-and-cognitive-ability","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Any number of different disciplines are involved in mental illness treatment and working with people with mental disorders. Psychological testing, however, is c","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Any number of different disciplines are involved in mental illness treatment and working with people with mental disorders. Psychological testing, however, is considered the sole domain of psychologists.\r\n\r\nAlthough some professionals, including school counselors and learning disability specialists, conduct psychological testing, their testing is limited in scope and to a specific problem. Psychologists are thoroughly trained in all aspects of psychological testing and are the primary professionals in this area.\r\n\r\nTesting formats include surveys, pencil-and-paper tests, exercises and activities (like putting a puzzle together), interviews, and observation. Psychological testing focuses on the subject matter of psychology, behavior, and mental processes.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Intelligence tests</h2>\r\nIntelligence tests may be the most frequently administered type of psychological test. They measure a broad range of intellectual and cognitive abilities and often provide a general measure of intelligence, which is sometimes called an <i>IQ </i>—<i> </i>intelligence quotient.\r\n\r\nIntelligence tests are used in a wide variety of settings and applications. They can be used for diagnostic purposes to identify disabilities and cognitive disorders. They’re commonly used in academic and school settings. Intelligence tests have been around since the beginning of psychology as an established science, dating back to the work of Wilhelm Wundt — one of the founders of psychology — in the early 20th century.\r\n\r\nThe most commonly used tests of intelligence are the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th Edition,<i> </i>for adults, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition, for children. Each of these tests contains several subtests designed to measure specific aspects of intelligence, such as attention, general knowledge, visual organization, and comprehension. Both tests provide individual scores for each subtest and an overall score representing overall intelligence.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Neuropsychological and cognitive tests</h2>\r\nAlthough not a new field, tests of neuropsychological functioning and cognitive ability, related specifically to brain functioning, are rapidly becoming a standard part of a psychologist’s testing toolset. Neuropsychological tests have traditionally been used to augment neurological exams and brain imaging techniques (such as MRIs, CT scans, and PET scans) but they’re being used more widely now in psychoeducational testing and other clinical testing situations.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">The technology of scanning techniques picks up on the presence of brain damage, but neuropsychological tests serve as a more precise measure of the actual functional impairments an individual may suffer from. Scans say, “Yep, there’s damage!” Neuropsychological tests say, “. . . and here’s the cognitive problem related to it.”</p>\r\nNeuropsychological testing is used in hospitals, clinics, private practices, and other places where psychologists work with patients who are suspected of neuropsychological impairment. People suffering head trauma, developmental disorder, or other insults to the brain may need a thorough neuropsychological examination.\r\n\r\nA popular neuropsychological test is a collection of tests called a <i>test battery. </i>The<i> </i>Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery includes tests that measure neuropsychological constructs, such as memory, attention and concentration, language ability, motor skills, auditory skill, and planning. Completing the battery requires several hours, and it’s never done in one sitting. However, when conducted by a competent professional, the testing can yield a tremendous amount of helpful information.\r\n\r\nMany neuropsychological instruments are available; some are comprehensive, like the Halstead-Reitan, and some are designed to measure a specific function such as language or attention. A neuropsychological evaluation is conducted using a comprehensive instrument or a collection of individual instruments to create a profile of neuropsychological strengths and weaknesses. The following areas of neuropsychological functioning are typically assessed:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Executive Functions:</b> Focusing, planning, organizing, monitoring, inhibiting, and self-regulating</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Communication and Language:</b> Perceiving, receiving, and expressing self with language and nonverbal communication</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Memory:</b> Auditory memory, visual memory, working memory, and long-term memory</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Sensorimotor Functions:</b> Sensory and motor functions, including hearing, touch, smell, and fine and gross muscle movements</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Visual-Spatial Functions:</b> Visual perception, visual motor coordination, visual scanning, and perceptual reasoning</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Speed and Efficiency:</b> How fast and how efficient thinking is</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>","description":"Any number of different disciplines are involved in mental illness treatment and working with people with mental disorders. Psychological testing, however, is considered the sole domain of psychologists.\r\n\r\nAlthough some professionals, including school counselors and learning disability specialists, conduct psychological testing, their testing is limited in scope and to a specific problem. Psychologists are thoroughly trained in all aspects of psychological testing and are the primary professionals in this area.\r\n\r\nTesting formats include surveys, pencil-and-paper tests, exercises and activities (like putting a puzzle together), interviews, and observation. Psychological testing focuses on the subject matter of psychology, behavior, and mental processes.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Intelligence tests</h2>\r\nIntelligence tests may be the most frequently administered type of psychological test. They measure a broad range of intellectual and cognitive abilities and often provide a general measure of intelligence, which is sometimes called an <i>IQ </i>—<i> </i>intelligence quotient.\r\n\r\nIntelligence tests are used in a wide variety of settings and applications. They can be used for diagnostic purposes to identify disabilities and cognitive disorders. They’re commonly used in academic and school settings. Intelligence tests have been around since the beginning of psychology as an established science, dating back to the work of Wilhelm Wundt — one of the founders of psychology — in the early 20th century.\r\n\r\nThe most commonly used tests of intelligence are the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th Edition,<i> </i>for adults, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition, for children. Each of these tests contains several subtests designed to measure specific aspects of intelligence, such as attention, general knowledge, visual organization, and comprehension. Both tests provide individual scores for each subtest and an overall score representing overall intelligence.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Neuropsychological and cognitive tests</h2>\r\nAlthough not a new field, tests of neuropsychological functioning and cognitive ability, related specifically to brain functioning, are rapidly becoming a standard part of a psychologist’s testing toolset. Neuropsychological tests have traditionally been used to augment neurological exams and brain imaging techniques (such as MRIs, CT scans, and PET scans) but they’re being used more widely now in psychoeducational testing and other clinical testing situations.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">The technology of scanning techniques picks up on the presence of brain damage, but neuropsychological tests serve as a more precise measure of the actual functional impairments an individual may suffer from. Scans say, “Yep, there’s damage!” Neuropsychological tests say, “. . . and here’s the cognitive problem related to it.”</p>\r\nNeuropsychological testing is used in hospitals, clinics, private practices, and other places where psychologists work with patients who are suspected of neuropsychological impairment. People suffering head trauma, developmental disorder, or other insults to the brain may need a thorough neuropsychological examination.\r\n\r\nA popular neuropsychological test is a collection of tests called a <i>test battery. </i>The<i> </i>Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery includes tests that measure neuropsychological constructs, such as memory, attention and concentration, language ability, motor skills, auditory skill, and planning. Completing the battery requires several hours, and it’s never done in one sitting. However, when conducted by a competent professional, the testing can yield a tremendous amount of helpful information.\r\n\r\nMany neuropsychological instruments are available; some are comprehensive, like the Halstead-Reitan, and some are designed to measure a specific function such as language or attention. A neuropsychological evaluation is conducted using a comprehensive instrument or a collection of individual instruments to create a profile of neuropsychological strengths and weaknesses. The following areas of neuropsychological functioning are typically assessed:\r\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Executive Functions:</b> Focusing, planning, organizing, monitoring, inhibiting, and self-regulating</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Communication and Language:</b> Perceiving, receiving, and expressing self with language and nonverbal communication</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Memory:</b> Auditory memory, visual memory, working memory, and long-term memory</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Sensorimotor Functions:</b> Sensory and motor functions, including hearing, touch, smell, and fine and gross muscle movements</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Visual-Spatial Functions:</b> Visual perception, visual motor coordination, visual scanning, and perceptual reasoning</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Speed and Efficiency:</b> How fast and how efficient thinking is</p>\r\n</li>\r\n</ul>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9556,"name":"Adam Cash","slug":"adam-cash","description":" <p><b>Adam Cash</b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9556"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":34076,"title":"General Psychology","slug":"general-psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Intelligence tests","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Neuropsychological and cognitive tests","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":207964,"title":"Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/207964"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":273560,"title":"Going Beyond Stress: The Psychology of Health","slug":"going-beyond-stress-the-psychology-of-health","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273560"}},{"articleId":273555,"title":"10 Great Psychological Movies and Shows","slug":"10-great-psychological-movies-and-shows","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273555"}},{"articleId":273547,"title":"The Organization of the Brain","slug":"the-organization-of-the-brain","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273547"}},{"articleId":273542,"title":"Biological Psychology: The Role of Cells and Chemicals","slug":"biological-psychology-the-role-of-cells-and-chemicals","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/273542"}},{"articleId":208951,"title":"Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"positive-psychology-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/208951"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282513,"slug":"psychology-for-dummies-3rd-edition","isbn":"9781119700296","categoryList":["body-mind-spirit","emotional-health-psychology","psychology","general-psychology"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119700299-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119700299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/psychology-for-dummies-3rd-edition-cover-9781119700296-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Psychology For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9556\">Adam Cash</b></b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9556,"name":"Adam Cash","slug":"adam-cash","description":" <p><b>Adam Cash</b> is a clinical psychologist who has practiced in a variety of settings including forensic institutions and outpatient clinics. He has taught Psychology at both the community college and university levels. He is currently in private practice specializing in psychological assessment, child psychology, and neurodevelopmental disorders. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9556"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119700296&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b12284c1\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;body-mind-spirit&quot;,&quot;emotional-health-psychology&quot;,&quot;psychology&quot;,&quot;general-psychology&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119700296&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1228eaf\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-12-28T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":160450},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T07:08:14+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-12-28T16:51:15+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:58+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Body, Mind, & Spirit","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34038"},"slug":"body-mind-spirit","categoryId":34038},{"name":"Emotional Health & Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34039"},"slug":"emotional-health-psychology","categoryId":34039},{"name":"Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34053"},"slug":"psychology","categoryId":34053},{"name":"General Psychology","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/34076"},"slug":"general-psychology","categoryId":34076}],"title":"Understanding the Information Processing Model for Cognitive Psychology","strippedTitle":"understanding the information processing model for cognitive psychology","slug":"understanding-the-information-processing-model-for-cognitive-psychology","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Cognitive psychologists use the information processing model to explain cognition. This model assumes that human cognition is a lot like a computer and the way ","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Cognitive psychologists use the information processing model to explain cognition. This model assumes that human cognition is a lot like a computer and the way the human brain works is by processing information through a series of stages:\r\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Perception: Input stage. </strong>People need to encode information from the world in order to process it and then respond to it appropriately. In part, perception is guided by experience, which changes the way people see the world. If information is attended to, it’s transferred from perception to memory.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Memory: Storage center. </strong>Information is stored in long-term memory and processed and used by short-term memory. All knowledge is stored in long-term memory.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Thinking: A high-level cognitive function. </strong>Information from perception and memory is used to make decisions, to reason and to make deductions.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Language: A high-level output stage of cognition. </strong>Often, the results of thinking need to be acted upon in terms of speaking or writing.</p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504153.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.\" width=\"535\" height=\"209\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.</div>\r\n</div></li>\r\n</ol>","description":"Cognitive psychologists use the information processing model to explain cognition. This model assumes that human cognition is a lot like a computer and the way the human brain works is by processing information through a series of stages:\r\n<ol class=\"level-one\">\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Perception: Input stage. </strong>People need to encode information from the world in order to process it and then respond to it appropriately. In part, perception is guided by experience, which changes the way people see the world. If information is attended to, it’s transferred from perception to memory.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Memory: Storage center. </strong>Information is stored in long-term memory and processed and used by short-term memory. All knowledge is stored in long-term memory.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Thinking: A high-level cognitive function. </strong>Information from perception and memory is used to make decisions, to reason and to make deductions.</p>\r\n</li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"first-para\"><strong>Language: A high-level output stage of cognition. </strong>Often, the results of thinking need to be acted upon in terms of speaking or writing.</p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/504153.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.\" width=\"535\" height=\"209\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.</div>\r\n</div></li>\r\n</ol>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":8958,"name":"Peter J. Hills","slug":"peter-j-hills","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8958"}},{"authorId":8959,"name":"Michael Pake","slug":"michael-pake","description":" <p><b>Dr Peter J. Hills, PhD,</b> is a principal lecturer and Head of Education in psychology at Bournemouth University. <b>Dr J Michael Pake</b> is a senior lecturer in Psychology at Anglia Ruskin University. 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What can you do in a mental health crisis? Who was Erik Erikson? What is altruism? What effect does the internet have on our minds? Explore the fascinating world of human psychology.

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General Psychology Understanding the Id, Ego, and Superego in Psychology

Article / Updated 08-08-2022

In Sigmund Freud's model of the human personality, each of us behaves according to these three key elements: Id: The seat of our impulses Ego: Negotiates with the id, pleases the superego Superego: Keeps us on the straight and narrow Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis in psychology, would have been a great Hollywood screenwriter. His "story" of personality is one of desire, power, control, and freedom. The plot is complex and the characters compete. Our personalities represent a drama of sorts, acted out in our minds. "You" are a product of how these competing mental forces and structures interact. The ancient Greeks thought that all people were actors in the drama of the gods above. For Freud, we are simply actors in the drama of our minds, pushed by desire, pulled by conscience. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power struggles going on deep within us. The id, ego, and superego each have their own idea of what the outcome of this drama should be. Their struggles are fueled by powerful motives, and each one is out for itself. I want, therefore I am The initial structural component and first character in Freud's drama of personality is the id. Have you ever felt overpowered by an incredibly strong urge, impulse, or desire? A new car, sexual desire, a dream job? The answer is probably a resounding "Yes!" Where does such desire come from? According to Freud, desire comes from the part of your personality called the id, located in the expanses of our mind. So look around, and look deep within. Look at your co-workers, look at your boss. It's in all of us, even the quiet elderly man at the bus stop. Underneath that quiet, grandfatherly demeanor lurks a seething cauldron of desire. The id contains all of our most basic animal and primitive impulses that demand satisfaction. It's the Mr. Hyde emerging from the restrained Dr. Jekyll. It's that little devil that sits on your shoulder, whispering temptations and spurring you on. Whenever you see a selfish, spoiled child in the grocery store demanding a toy and throwing a tantrum if he doesn't get his way, you'll know that's the id in action! The id is a type of "container" that holds our desires. Relentlessly driven by a force Freud called the libido, the collective energy of life's instincts and will to survive, the id must be satisfied! We're all born with the id in full force. It's unregulated and untouched by the constraints of the world outside of our minds. When a baby gets hungry, does she sit quietly and wait until someone remembers to feed her? Anyone who's ever gotten out of bed in the middle of the night to feed a baby knows the answer to that. But don't give the id a bad rap. Where would you be without desire? Your desire pushes you through life; it leads you to seek the things you need to survive. Without it we'd die, or at the very least, we'd be really boring. So keep in mind that a large part of your personality consists of your desires and your attempts to satisfy them. Enter the ego Wouldn't it be nice if you could get everything you wanted, whenever and however you wanted it? Unfortunately, most of us know otherwise. We all know how frustrating it can be when a desire goes unmet or gets stifled. Well, you can blame your ego for that. The ego is Freud's second mental apparatus of personality. The ego's main function is to mediate between the id's demands and the external world around us — reality, in other words. Does the Rolling Stones' song "You Can't Always Get What You Want" come to mind? So far, it seems that, if it wasn't for reality, we would be a lot more satisfied. Even though the ego finds itself in conflict with the id, satisfaction is not abandoned. The ego is like a sports agent for a really talented athlete. Even though the athlete may demand a multimillion-dollar contract, the agent reminds him that he could price himself out of a job. So the ego negotiates with the id in order to get it what it wants without costing it too much in the long run. The ego accomplishes this important task by converting, diverting, and transforming the powerful forces of the id into more useful and realistic modes of satisfaction. It attempts to harness the id's power, regulating it in order to achieve satisfaction despite the limits of reality. The final judgment As if the ego's job wasn't hard enough, playing referee between the id and reality, its performance is under constant scrutiny by a relentless judge, the superego. While the ego negotiates with the id, trying to prevent another tantrum, the superego judges the performance. Superego is another name for your conscience. It expects your ego to be strong and effective in its struggles against the libido's force. Usually, our conscience comes from our parents or a parental figure. As we grow, we internalize their standards, those same standards that make us feel so guilty when we tell a lie or cheat on our taxes. But does everyone have a conscience? There are certain people throughout history who have committed such horrible acts of violence that we sometimes wonder if they are void of conscience. How can serial killers such as Ted Bundy or Wayne Williams commit such horrible crimes? A strong bet is that they lack the basic capacity to feel guilt, so nothing really prevents them from acting out their violent fantasies. A famous psychiatrist once said that evil men do what good men only dream of.

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General Psychology 3 Psychological Tests to Measure Abnormal Behavior, Achievement, and Personality

Article / Updated 08-04-2022

Psychological tests are part of the entire psychological assessment process. Assessment is a set of scientific procedures used to measure and evaluate an individual’s behavior and mental processes. Psychologist Anne Anastasi (1908–2001), a past president of the American Psychological Association, defines a psychological test as an objective, standardized sample of behavior or mental processes. Nearly all topics in psychology can be measured with a test. Clinical tests Clinical psychologists (psychologists who work with mental disorders and abnormal behavior) typically use clinical testing as a way to clarify diagnoses and assess the scope and nature of a person’s or family’s disturbance and dysfunction. Specific tests are designed to assess the extent to which a patient may or may not be experiencing the symptoms of a particular disorder. These are diagnostic tests. Behavioral and adaptive functioning tests are two types of clinical tests that determine how well a person is doing in her everyday life and whether she exhibits specific problem behaviors. A common instrument used with children is the Child Behavior Checklist, which assesses the extent of a child’s behavior problems. Another commonly used clinical test is the Conner’s Parent Rating Scale, which detects attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. In addition to disorder-specific inventories and tests, a wide variety of tests designed for other purposes lend themselves to the diagnostic process. Intelligence tests are designed to measure intelligence, but they can also show signs of cognitive dysfunction and learning disabilities. Personality tests are designed to measure personality, but they can also provide helpful insight to the types of psychological problems an individual is experiencing. Educational and achievement tests Educational and achievement tests measure an individual’s current level of academic competence. Glen Aylward, chair of the Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics at the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, identifies three major purposes of this type of testing: Identify students who need special instruction. Identify the nature of a student’s difficulties in order to rule out learning disabilities. Assist in educational planning and approach to instruction. A typical educational/achievement test assesses the most common areas of school activity: reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing skills. Some tests include other areas such as science and social studies. A popular achievement test in use today is the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery, Revised. The test consists of nine subtests, measuring the standard areas of instruction but in more detail (mathematics is broken down into calculation and applied problems, for example). When a student has a hard time in school, it’s not unusual to administer an achievement test. Sometimes, students have a difficult time because they have a learning disability. Part of identifying a learning disability is assessing the student’s achievement level. Other times, a student struggles because of non-academic difficulties including emotional problems, substance abuse, or family issues. An achievement test sometimes helps to tease out these non-academic problems. Personality tests Personality tests measure many different things, not just personality. Numerous tests are designed to measure emotion, motivation, and interpersonal skills as well as specific aspects of personality, according to the given theory on which a test is based. Most personality tests are known as self-reports. With self-reports, the person answering questions about herself, typically in a pencil-and-paper format, provides the information. Personality tests are usually developed with a particular theory of personality in mind. A test may measure id, ego, or superego issues, for example, if it originates from a Freudian view of personality development. MMPI-2 Perhaps the most widely used personality test in the United States is the MMPI-2, The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 2nd Edition. Almost all American psychologists are trained to use the MMPI-2, which is considered to be a very reliable and valid instrument. A patient’s results from a MMPI-2 test provide rich information about the presence of psychopathology and level of severity, if present. The test’s results also reveal information about the emotional, behavioral, and social functioning of the test taker. A lot of psychologists use the MMPI-2 as a way to check the accuracy of their observations and diagnoses. The MMPI-2 test consists of 567 individual items and produces a score on nine clinical categories or scales. If a score is over a specific cutoff, it usually gets the attention of the psychologist administering the test. Psychologists consider such scores to be of clinical significance. The MMPI-2 covers a wide variety of areas, including depression, physical complaints, anger, social contact, anxiety, and energy level. Projective personality tests Projective personality tests are a unique breed of test. When most people think of psychological testing, these kinds of tests come readily to mind. The stereotype involves sitting across from a psychologist, looking at a card with smeared ink or a picture of somebody doing something on it, and answering questions like “What do you see here?” (You can take a free, mock personality test at here.) Projective personality tests are based on the projective hypothesis, which states that when presented with ambiguous stimuli, people project parts of themselves and their psychological functioning that they may not reveal if asked directly The idea is that many people can’t exactly describe what’s going on mentally and emotionally because of psychological defense mechanisms. Projective tests get past the defenses and penetrate the deep recesses of the psyche. Perhaps the most popular projective personality test and maybe even the most popular psychological test of all time is the Rorschach Inkblot Test (RIT). The RIT consists of ten cards, each with its own standard inkblot figure. None of these inkblots are a picture or representation of anything. They were created by simply pouring ink onto a sheet of paper and folding it in half. The only meaning and structure the cards have are provided by the projections of the test taker himself.

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General Psychology Sports Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-27-2022

Being a successful athlete is about more than just physical strength and agility — your mind plays a key part in your winning performance. You can use sports psychology techniques to build confidence and improve your focus. Sports psychology isn’t limited to athletes — as a coach, you can use sports psychology to help your athletes achieve their goals.

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General Psychology Dream Dictionary For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-19-2022

Your dreams are trying to tell you something. If you can interpret your dreams, they offer you greater self-awareness, knowledge, and success. Don't overlook the details in your dreams — messages may be lurking there. Keep a dream diary to uncover themes and insight in your dreams. Study the meanings of common dreams, because they represent situations most people experience at some point in life.

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General Psychology Cognitive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-28-2022

Cognitive psychology is the study of all things to do with thinking. It’s the part of psychology that covers perception, attention, memory, knowledge, thinking, reasoning, decision-making and language. To study it, cognitive psychologists develop ingenious experiments that manipulate a small part of the cognitive system.

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General Psychology Positive Psychology For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-14-2022

In positive psychology, science tries to answer questions about what makes people happy, what a good life is, and how to increase life satisfaction. This Cheat Sheet gives you some ways in which you can make positive psychology work for you.

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General Psychology Cognitive Psychology: Looking Honestly into Lying

Article / Updated 12-29-2021

Lying is a deliberate attempt to mislead someone verbally or by conveying a false impression through body language. Cognitive psychologists are particularly interested in lying, because it’s a special kind of thought process: unusually, it’s not designed to communicate truthfully with other people. Normal thought and communication is based on trying to provide accurate information (for example, a textbook wouldn’t be much good if it was designed not to tell the truth). This difference makes lying an unusual process. People lie at least twice a day and in approximately one-fifth of all interactions lasting more than ten minutes. Men and women lie an equal amount, but women are slightly better at detecting lying (at least among their same-sex friends). Some people are more likely to lie than others (such as the manipulative and Machiavellian) and some are better at lying than others (the physically attractive and self-confident). Certain groups of people tend not to lie, such as people with a sense of social responsibility and those suffering from depression. Understanding the cognitive psychology of lying Although lying is quite frequent, cognitive psychologists have found that it’s a challenging process that demands a great deal of cognitive resources. Research consistently shows that lying takes longer than telling the truth — honest! The reason is that lying involves two stages: the decision to lie and then the construction of the lie. When someone asks a question to which a person may respond with a lie, the truth is more "active" in the mind of the liar than the lie (unless it’s a highly practiced lie — "We won’t raise taxes or cut benefits!"). Therefore, if the person decides to lie, he must suppress the truth, which requires cognitive effort. He must then search his memory to produce a lie, using logic to construct a believable one; he also requires a theory of mind (that is, he has to understand how someone else may see the world). Neuroscientists have discovered that when people are lying, different parts of the brain are active compared to when they’re recalling truthful events. Typically, when people are lying their pre-frontal cortex displays activity, which is the same brain region involved in high-level reasoning. Developing the ability to lie Given that lying depends on the liar’s theory of mind and his pre-frontal cortex, it’s no wonder that the ability to lie develops with age. The temptation resistance paradigm is a typical experiment employed to test children’s fibbing abilities. They’re left alone in a room with a tempting item (such as a chocolate cake or a toy) that the experimenter tells them not to touch. Most young children (under 4 years of age) can’t inhibit the behavior and they touch the object. When asked whether they touched the object, young children can’t verbalize a convincing lie — they’re too creative and may accidentally indicate the truth in their lie (for example, "a mysterious man entered the room and touched it"). This indicates that young children are less able to lie verbally than adults. The ability to lie develops in parallel with executive functions and theory of mind, and it tends to occur earlier than the ability to construct and maintain a believable lie. From about 7 years of age, children are able to maintain a lie. Lying in the animal kingdom Until relatively recent, biologists believed that animals were unable to lie. Work by psychologists, however, shows that many animal species can lie. In one example, researchers partially hid a grapefruit in a chimpanzee enclosure. They then showed the chimpanzees the empty grapefruit box. The chimpanzees were excited and went in search of the grapefruits as a group. They displayed no obvious detection of the grapefruit. But later in the day, one of the chimpanzees (when alone) went straight to where the grapefruit was buried, dug it up and ate it. Clearly it had seen the fruit earlier but didn’t want to reveal that it knew the location, because the others would try to steal it. Apes trained to use sign language, and who are tested in a similar way as the temptation resistance paradigm, lie in a similar manner to young children. In one classic example, a gorilla was told not to eat a particular fruit, and then the experimenter left the room. The gorilla promptly ate the fruit. When the experimenter returned, the gorilla denied eating the fruit. The limitations of the gorilla’s language mean that researchers will never know whether the gorilla could construct a believable lie as to what happened to the fruit, but it was clearly able to lie about eating it.

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General Psychology Human Differences: Culture, Gender, and Sexuality

Article / Updated 12-28-2021

"Everybody is unique!" is the mantra of the modern era. Many people pride themselves on being different and one of a kind — particularly in Western popular culture and media — and anybody spending any time studying and working with people will tell you there is a great deal of truth to this. Three of the most prominent, salient, and obvious variations among people are differences in culture, gender, and sexuality/sexual orientation. Psychology and culture You live in a truly global society. People are more connected than ever, the world seems smaller, and you can encounter an array of differences at a pace and scale never before seen in history. In the past, you might be lucky if you met someone from a different culture once a month (depending on where you lived). Now, you can meet people from all over the world on the bus, at Starbucks, or online. Psychology as a field would be incomplete without an understanding of how different cultural contexts influence individual minds and behavior. Cross-cultural psychologist John W. Berry at Queen's University in Canada proposes that much of what is known as "psychology" is what he calls "culture bound" and "culture-blind": Culture-bound: Psychology is most popular in Western societies (Europe, the United States, and Canada). As such, it has limited understanding of people outside of those regions — not exactly a universal science considering that the majority of the world's population lives outside of those areas. Culture-blind: The psychology of Europe, the U.S., and Canada has a tendency to largely ignore the influence of culture on the mind and behavior. How do you address these issues? Cross-cultural psychology is the study of how culture influences the mind and behavior. And when referencing "culture," think on a societal level. This can be religious groups, ethnic groups, or even geographic groupings, such as "Californian" — and if you think there aren't different cultures in California compared to New York, just ask a New Yorker. Choosing a view: From the inside or out? Two approaches that a researcher can use to gain insight and information from another culture and its practices are the emic and etic techniques, first developed by K.L. Pike in the 1960s. Emic: The emic method involves approaching a culture different from one's own without preconceived notions as an "outsider" and seeking to understand from the perspective of the "insider" of that culture. An example of an emic approach would be to investigate or collect data on intergroup conflict (for example, rival gangs in Los Angeles) from the perspective of the gang members themselves. This could be done by using a technique called the ethnographic interview, in which the research subject describes his or her experience as openly and freely as possible. An advantage to the emic approach is that it gives very authentic data, specific to a particular culture or group. A disadvantage is that the data or findings might not be applicable beyond that specific situation or group, posing a problem of generalization. Etic: The etic method approaches understanding with all of the preconceived notions and methods of the "outsider." An example of an etic approach would be to investigate or collect data on gang-versus-gang conflict by administering a series of personality tests to individual members that were developed for the general population. An advantage to the etic approach is that findings might be more generalizable; a disadvantage might be that outside bias might influence the interpretation of the findings. It is generally expected that a combined emic and etic approach is the best way to capture the complexities in cross-cultural research. Exploring indigenous psychologies Is there a "Japanese Psychology?" Is there a "Brazilian Psychology?" Is there a "Tamil Psychology?" The short answer is yes. One of the goals of cross-cultural psychology is to look for variations in "other" cultures that are not present in "our own." Not all mental disorders are found in all cultures; or, at the very least, the manifestation of specific disorders varies somewhat or to some degree. The hallucinations of schizophrenics, for example, vary by culture (seeing things versus hearing things, or smelling things). Indigenous psychology also studies culture-bound syndromes — mental disorders that are only recognized and manifest in specific cultures. Here are some of the more interesting ones: Running amok (Malaysian origin): A sudden outburst of aggression or violence and running around wildly. Falling out (African American; Caribbean): Alteration in consciousness including passing out in response to stress. Susto (Mexico, Central America, South America): Displaced soul resulting from trauma. Koro (Asia): A man's sudden grasping of his penis for fear that it will retract into the body. For a women, fear that her nipples may protract. Pibloktog (Arctic and Inuit): Seizure, losing consciousness, amnesia, breaking furniture, eating feces, yelling obscenities. And something can be a norm in one culture that would be considered a disorder in another. For example, grieving in some cultures includes extended periods of mourning, not going out into public, wearing black, not remarrying, and not attending family events. These are expected norms. In Western cultures, this behavior might be diagnosed as depression. Other studies have noted other cross-cultural differences. For example, immigrants to North American from Haiti and Eastern Europe are less trusting of others than Western European Americans and African Americans. Asian Americans show fewer outwards signs of depression than European Americans, who clearly smile less and display more negative emotion when depressed. Looking for universals Are there psychological universals? Cross-culture studies have been conducted in a wide range of areas, such as developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and psychopathology. Cross-cultural similarities have been found for such phenomena as theory-of mind, counting ability in infants, and mate preferences (in almost all cultures studied, men value attractiveness and chastity more than women do, and women value status and financial prospects). Ultimately, as can be found with many issues in psychology, the "answer" to the human universal versus cultural variability question is that broadly speaking, the components of the mind and human behavior can be thought of as (by varying degrees) both universal and variable across cultures. Psychology and gender Perhaps the most simple and obvious human differences are sex and gender, male or female, masculine or feminine. Nearly all descriptions of other people when we talk about them, tell stories, describe them, or research them include an accounting of sex and gender. Sex refers to an individual's biological status as either male or female, including anatomy. For the most part, you are born with your sex. Gender is not so cut and dry. Gender refers to the behavior and characteristics defining masculinity or femininity, which is understood to be psychologically, socially, and culturally constructed. Gender can be correlated with sex to some degree, but everyone knows people who are sexually male who are feminine in gender and vice versa. Finding a place in the continuum Gender manifests itself psychologically and behaviorally in what psychologists call gender roles. A gender role is a collection of social norms and expectations for a person who identifies or is identified as either masculine or feminine, man or woman. The presence of gender roles in societies gives rise to stereotypes and biases, prejudices, and judgments, of course. However, the world is still very "gendered," and people are still pretty much viewed through the lens of gender role and gender role categories. Psychologist Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory as a way to characterize an individual's gender in relation to a scale. Bem's inventory identifies the following as characteristics typically associated with being masculine, feminine, or neutral: Masculine: Acts as a leader, aggressive, ambitious, analytical, assertive, athletic, competitive, defends own beliefs, dominant, and forceful Feminine: Adaptable, affectionate, cheerful, does not use harsh language, gentle to needs of others, soft-spoken, tender, warm, compassionate, and loyal Neutral: Adaptable, conscientious, friendly, helpful, jealous, moody, secretive, solemn, theatrical, and unpredictable There is no value judgment associated with Bem's breakdown. Certainly both masculine and feminine traits are valuable in their own right, and certainly their utility and usefulness will vary by situation and context. Looking at gender differences Gender stereotypes abound. Girls can't do math. Men are uncaring. We know that stereotypes are often a shortcut for critical thought and all too often take us down the wrong road. But consistent differences between men and women have been found in research, such as higher rates of aggression and violence in men, higher rates of substance abuse in men, and higher rates of depression in women. Women's and men's leadership styles vary as well, with women adopting a more democratic and participatory approach and men adopting a more autocratic and directive approach. At one point in history, scientists claimed that women had inferior brains. However, modern neuroscience demonstrates no difference in general intelligence between men and women. Some studies suggest that men perform better at spatial and math abilities while women have stronger verbal abilities, but these findings are so small that they are irrelevant in the real world. So, why are there so few women in science and technology? If it's not biology, then is it culture, family influence, or sexism? The answer to this question has yet to be found. Psychology and sexuality Whom are you sexually attracted to? Sexual attraction is part of what defines a person's sexuality. A person's sexuality consists of his or her Sexual biology (for example, genitals and arousal) Psychosocial functioning (attractions, emotions, and beliefs) Behavior (masturbation and intercourse) Clinical aspects (erectile dysfunction and fetishes) Cultural aspects (prohibitions of premarital sex or gender roles) Laying the building blocks of sexuality The development of sexuality is thought to begin in childhood, or at least the roots of adult sexuality are thought to come from childhood. Infants, toddlers, and young kids Of course, one's sex first becomes evident at birth (or younger if you get a fetal ultrasound), thus marking the early stages of sexuality. A person's sex carries with it biological predispositions (attraction tendencies) and cultural expectations (he's going to be a "ladies' man"). The sexuality development process is just beginning. An infant's closeness with parents (being hugged, cuddled, bathed, and dressed) is a precursor to sexuality and it's possible that disruptions or unhealthy experiences in these interactions can lead to difficulties with sexuality later in life. (These are not seen as "sexual" experiences for an infant but rather precursors to later developed sexuality, as they relate to physical closeness.) As infants grow into "kids," there is a growing awareness and curiosity about their bodies and genitals. It is not unusual to see children "play" with their genitals and engage in "show" games to others. They may even stimulate themselves by rubbing their genitals against toys or other objects. Simultaneously, there is an awareness of parental reactions and attitudes toward the body in general and genitals in particular. These experiences can range from shaming, to embarrassment, to laughter, to acceptance. Keep in mind that an overly negative tone should be avoided. At some point, children inevitably asking how babies are made, and how parents respond to this varies widely. Some give a biologically informed talk, whereas others engage in elaborate fairy tales. It is best not to avoid this discussion because a curious child is bound to find out one way or another; parents should want to be in control of their child's access to that type of information. Crushes and attractions start to emerge and children may even talk about "marrying" or "having a boyfriend" in reference to a class or playmate. Approaching adolescence As children approach adolescence they have a fairly clear understanding of the anatomical differences between boys and girls. Attitudes toward nudity in the home can change as children become more "mature." Kids may engage in "playing house" or "doctor" as a way to explore their sexual arousal, attractions, and bodies. Experimentation may be with either gender. This type of sex play is not generally considered harmful under ordinary and relatively innocent circumstances. However, behavior that appears to be "age-inappropriate" such as overly adult-like actions and adult sexual language use may be a warning sign of possible inappropriate sexual exposure or abuse. Also look for the following warnings that a child may be being sexually abused: Refusal to change for gym or to participate in physical activities Reluctance to be left alone with a particular person or people Sexual knowledge, language, and/or behaviors that are unusual and inappropriate for their age There could be other reasons for these behaviors, but take seriously any suspicion of sexual abuse of children. Puberty and adulthood Puberty marks a significant stage of sexual development. Bodies and physiology go through immense changes. Surveys suggest that the average age of first intercourse is 16 years old for boys and 17 years old for girls. Teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases become real concerns as well. These issues remain ongoing into adulthood. Defining healthy sexuality Having a "healthy sex life" is common fodder for daytime talk shows, books and magazines. Defining healthy sexuality is not about moralizing or upholding any particular set of cultural values per se, but is seen as a "health issue" and is defined in terms of a healthy adult relationship in which the rights, well-being, and satisfaction of all involved is central. Deciding what's attractive Every year, people spend billions of dollars trying to make themselves more attractive. And people also want someone "good-looking" to be with. It's not just physical attributes, personality plays a big role in who you are attracted to, as do a host of other attributes such as moral values and career. Where do our attraction preferences come from? Once again, nature and nurture are at play in the development of sexual attraction. From a biological (nature) perspective, sexual attraction is referred to as sexual selection and is understood within an evolutionary context. Sexual attraction is a function of keeping the species alive! But attraction is immensely individualized and heavily culturally influenced. What might make one person attractive to one person and not another is subjective. Research has turned up some features common to both female and male attractiveness, however, such as financial stability, waist-to-hip ratio (curvaceousness) in women, and the "inverted triangle" (shoulders, chest, waist) for men. However, these must not be oversold. Not everyone likes blondes, or curves, or muscles, or . . . you get the idea. Getting your bearings on sexual orientation There is great variety in sexual attraction, but one determinant that plays the biggest role is sexual orientation, defined as an individual's patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. Sexual orientation exists on a continuum with three main orientations: heterosexual (attractions to the opposite sex), gay/lesbian (attractions to the same sex as oneself), and bisexual (attractions to both men and women). Sexual orientation is considered separate from one's biological sex and gender identity. You could be a "feminine" (gender) male (sex) who is attracted to women (heterosexual) or a "masculine" woman attracted to women. The causes of sexual orientation have yet to be firmly discovered through scientific research. It is considered both biologically determined and environmentally shaped. Research shows the relative influence of such variables as genetics, hormones, and cultural influences, but no one factor has been crowned "the cause." Some people have judged that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is a lifestyle "choice" that a person makes, but many gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women report feeling as if they had "no choice" and simply knew how they felt from an early age. They simply were attracted to whom they were attracted to, period. Until 1973, being gay or lesbian was considered a mental disorder and was diagnosable by psychiatrists with the aim of providing "treatment." Mainstream psychology now considers these sexual orientations as normal variations of human sexuality. These are not disordered people — just people. It is important to note that prejudice and discrimination continue to negatively impact members of the LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered) community, and these influences can lead to stress-related difficulties. Rather than viewing these sexual orientations as disorders, psychology has come to focus on helping individuals in the LGBTQ community overcome and cope with discrimination. Psychologists have developed programs focused on helping teens to "come out," especially those in communities that still have a difficult time accepting people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. Psychologists also explore gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered social and identity development. Therapies and therapists claiming to be able to change an individual's sexual orientation (for example, if a man no longer wishes to "be gay") have not been demonstrated to be effective from a scientific perspective. Such "treatments" are considered outside the mainstream, and are not supported by the American Psychological Association.

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General Psychology 2 Psychological Tests to Measure Intelligence and Neuropsychological and Cognitive Ability

Article / Updated 12-28-2021

Any number of different disciplines are involved in mental illness treatment and working with people with mental disorders. Psychological testing, however, is considered the sole domain of psychologists. Although some professionals, including school counselors and learning disability specialists, conduct psychological testing, their testing is limited in scope and to a specific problem. Psychologists are thoroughly trained in all aspects of psychological testing and are the primary professionals in this area. Testing formats include surveys, pencil-and-paper tests, exercises and activities (like putting a puzzle together), interviews, and observation. Psychological testing focuses on the subject matter of psychology, behavior, and mental processes. Intelligence tests Intelligence tests may be the most frequently administered type of psychological test. They measure a broad range of intellectual and cognitive abilities and often provide a general measure of intelligence, which is sometimes called an IQ — intelligence quotient. Intelligence tests are used in a wide variety of settings and applications. They can be used for diagnostic purposes to identify disabilities and cognitive disorders. They’re commonly used in academic and school settings. Intelligence tests have been around since the beginning of psychology as an established science, dating back to the work of Wilhelm Wundt — one of the founders of psychology — in the early 20th century. The most commonly used tests of intelligence are the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th Edition, for adults, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition, for children. Each of these tests contains several subtests designed to measure specific aspects of intelligence, such as attention, general knowledge, visual organization, and comprehension. Both tests provide individual scores for each subtest and an overall score representing overall intelligence. Neuropsychological and cognitive tests Although not a new field, tests of neuropsychological functioning and cognitive ability, related specifically to brain functioning, are rapidly becoming a standard part of a psychologist’s testing toolset. Neuropsychological tests have traditionally been used to augment neurological exams and brain imaging techniques (such as MRIs, CT scans, and PET scans) but they’re being used more widely now in psychoeducational testing and other clinical testing situations. The technology of scanning techniques picks up on the presence of brain damage, but neuropsychological tests serve as a more precise measure of the actual functional impairments an individual may suffer from. Scans say, “Yep, there’s damage!” Neuropsychological tests say, “. . . and here’s the cognitive problem related to it.” Neuropsychological testing is used in hospitals, clinics, private practices, and other places where psychologists work with patients who are suspected of neuropsychological impairment. People suffering head trauma, developmental disorder, or other insults to the brain may need a thorough neuropsychological examination. A popular neuropsychological test is a collection of tests called a test battery. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery includes tests that measure neuropsychological constructs, such as memory, attention and concentration, language ability, motor skills, auditory skill, and planning. Completing the battery requires several hours, and it’s never done in one sitting. However, when conducted by a competent professional, the testing can yield a tremendous amount of helpful information. Many neuropsychological instruments are available; some are comprehensive, like the Halstead-Reitan, and some are designed to measure a specific function such as language or attention. A neuropsychological evaluation is conducted using a comprehensive instrument or a collection of individual instruments to create a profile of neuropsychological strengths and weaknesses. The following areas of neuropsychological functioning are typically assessed: Executive Functions: Focusing, planning, organizing, monitoring, inhibiting, and self-regulating Communication and Language: Perceiving, receiving, and expressing self with language and nonverbal communication Memory: Auditory memory, visual memory, working memory, and long-term memory Sensorimotor Functions: Sensory and motor functions, including hearing, touch, smell, and fine and gross muscle movements Visual-Spatial Functions: Visual perception, visual motor coordination, visual scanning, and perceptual reasoning Speed and Efficiency: How fast and how efficient thinking is

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General Psychology Understanding the Information Processing Model for Cognitive Psychology

Article / Updated 12-28-2021

Cognitive psychologists use the information processing model to explain cognition. This model assumes that human cognition is a lot like a computer and the way the human brain works is by processing information through a series of stages: Perception: Input stage. People need to encode information from the world in order to process it and then respond to it appropriately. In part, perception is guided by experience, which changes the way people see the world. If information is attended to, it’s transferred from perception to memory. Memory: Storage center. Information is stored in long-term memory and processed and used by short-term memory. All knowledge is stored in long-term memory. Thinking: A high-level cognitive function. Information from perception and memory is used to make decisions, to reason and to make deductions. Language: A high-level output stage of cognition. Often, the results of thinking need to be acted upon in terms of speaking or writing. The information processing model of cognition shows how information enters and leaves the mind.

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