Environmental Science Articles

Article / Updated 10-03-2022

A hurricane starts as a tropical storm, and a tropical storm reaches hurricane status when it develops and sustains winds moving at least 74 miles per hour. The storm itself is a cyclone with winds spiraling (at least in the Northern Hemisphere) in a counterclockwise direction. These cyclones, or rotating storms, develop over any ocean but are called hurricanes when they arise over the Atlantic or Northern Pacific. In other areas, they’re called typhoons or tropical cyclones. How does a hurricane form, and when is hurricane season? How a hurricane comes together isn’t precisely known, but it requires warm water (at least 79 degrees Fahrenheit) and winds that rise without much change in direction. Those factors combine to create winds that move in a spiral. As a storm grows, it may cover a diameter of more than 600 miles and gust at more than 200 miles per hour — nearly the top speed of a Formula One racecar. The faster the wind, the higher the storm rating and the greater the threat to everyone and everything in its path. Hurricanes are rated by intensity on a scale of 1 to 5, with a Category 1 storm showing the lowest intensity and winds of no more than 95 mph. Those in Category 5 top 156 mph. Hurricanes Maria (Dominica and Puerto Rico) and Irma (Florida) were Category 5 storms that made landfall in 2017. Windows and doors may get smashed from winds at the Category 2 level and above. Hurricane season runs from late May through November. What is the center of a hurricane, and other storm anatomy questions A hurricane is made up of several parts. If you could look closely at a cross-section of a hurricane, here’s what you’d see, starting from the center of the hurricane: Eye: An oasis of calm surrounded by hurtling winds and rain, the eye of a hurricane is about 20 to 40 miles of low winds, light rain, and even clear skies where the air is sinking rather than rising. Eye wall: Swirling around the eye, the eye wall is a band of thunderstorms where the rain and wind are strongest. Air is moving rapidly here in the direction of the eye of the storm, rising before it sinks again at the storm’s center. Feeder bands: Stretching sometimes hundreds of miles from the center of the storm, feeder bands of a hurricane are bands of heavy rain and wind sometimes include tornadoes. Outflow: Hurricanes stretch up much farther than out. Way up at a plane’s cruising altitude, the outflow of a hurricane is a huge swath of clouds swirling in the opposite direction of a hurricane. Hurricane prone areas If you live in Montana, you’re in the clear. Because hurricanes develop over warm ocean waters and lose strength as they travel over land, they do their worst near the country’s coasts. Here are the counties and areas that are prone and have been most often hit from 1960 to 2008, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce: Monroe County, Florida Lafourche Parish, Louisiana Carteret County, North Carolina Dare County, North Carolina Hyde County, North Carolina Jefferson Parish, Louisiana Palm Beach County, Florida Miami-Dade County, Florida Bernard Parish, Louisiana Cameron Parish, Louisiana What is hurricane storm surge? Hurricanes form over warm oceans, and when they reach land they push huge amounts of ocean water onto the shore with them. This is usually described as a “wall of water” but more specifically is an extremely fast rise in water above sea level. It technically is known as the storm surge. During Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the storm surge topped 25 feet and was a major factor in that storm’s high death toll. (At least 1,500 people died during Katrina.) A storm surge unleashes the incredible power of wind and water, sweeping up trees, cars, and buildings as it moves. Even standing in just six inches of these powerful waters would be difficult. A storm surge may reach land ahead of the storm, and when it does it may flood the roads you’d have used to evacuate. If you live near the shore, get out well in advance of the storm’s landfall. The storm surge may hit a day earlier, and it’s the deadliest element of a hurricane. The elements of a storm surge, like strength and angle of the storm, the shape of the land where it hits, and the shape of the continental shelf at the coastline, combine in unpredictable ways. In other words, no one can predict the intensity of a storm surge. Erring on the side of caution is warranted, especially when you consider that a cubic yard of water weighs almost a ton. The risk of damage from a storm surge is highest in the following states: Florida Louisiana Texas New Jersey New York You don’t have to live on a coast to get hit by the rains and winds a hurricane creates, and if you are in a high-risk area, you need to take steps — before hurricane season hits — to prepare yourself, your family, and your home for the potentially deadly damage. A hurricane is nature at its most destructive. These tropical cyclones don’t sneak up: When a hurricane is on its way, you’ll have several days’ warning before it lands, so keep an eye on the news or sign up for hurricane alerts. But sometimes several days isn’t enough. If you act much earlier, you won’t be fighting your neighbors for the last jugs of water on the store shelves. Create a hurricane preparedness checklist You want to prepare for a hurricane before hurricane season even starts, and a hurricane preparedness checklist can help you make sure you’ve got everything in order. Avoid the mad dash for supplies by prepping a hurricane disaster supply kit before you’re likely to need it. You want a large plastic tub or duffle bag so that everything in your kit is in one place and is ready to move. Pack it with the following: Water jugs: Traditional wisdom says bring a gallon per person per day for a minimum of three days. If you have room to carry it, err on the side of too much water. Food: Pack up enough nonperishable food for a few days — and a can opener. Think canned tuna and fruit, dry cereal, peanut butter, or granola bars, and focus on high-energy foods rather than salty snacks that will lead you to use too much of your water. Pack foods you like and some comfort foods because you’re going into a high-stress situation. No need to add to your angst. First-aid kit Flashlight and extra batteries Portable radio (you may not have Internet service) and extra batteries Cellphone charger Toilet paper Blankets or sleeping bags Glasses or contacts and contact solution A change of clothes for each family member Distractions like games, toys, and books Pet food Insect repellent Whistle (to signal for help) or flares Waterproof containers or plastic bags Other ways to prepare for a hurricane Preparation isn’t just what you do when a storm is imminent. Many of the moves that best protect you are the ones you make far ahead of time, like building a hurricane kit. You also want to take these steps: Have a plan. And make sure everyone in your household knows it. Choose a point person for everyone to contact and a meeting place if you get separated. Stay current on weather conditions. Keep a close eye on weather updates and emergency guidelines for your area. Minimize tree-related damage. Remove any dead wood from your trees; keep them trimmed so that they’re healthy and branches don’t reach your home. Maintain your car. Keep your car in good working order; gas up your tank when a storm nears. Protect your windows. Plan how you’ll protect your windows with permanent storm shutters or plywood. Long before a storm hits, make sure you have the right number and sizes of 5/8-inch-thick plywood sheets ready to be nailed in. Reinforce your exterior doors. They’re more likely to stay put against a hurricane if they’re secured by three hinges per door and a one-inch deadbolt. Prepare for rain run-off. Regularly clean gutters and drains so that they’re in the best shape to handle heavy rain. Get and maintain the right insurance. Purchase adequate homeowner’s insurance and become well-acquainted with its terms. Arm yourself with information Several organizations specialize in weather and emergency information. Check out these resources for further details about staying safe in a hurricane: The American Red Cross offers several guides for hurricane preparedness and safety and can tell you how to donate to relief efforts. FEMA keeps you alerted to storm progress, evacuation orders, and shelter locations during a hurricane. The Department of Homeland Security’s gov gives you hour-by-hour checklists of preparation and safety guidelines for hurricanes. You can track a storm through the National Hurricane Center Weather Underground tracks tropical storm and hurricane activity in tremendous detail and offers historical data as well as general preparedness information. For official communications related to hurricanes, please visit the websites of FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Hurricane Center for the latest information. Please note that this is general preparedness information, not specific to a particular storm.

Article / Updated 09-26-2022

When a hurricane strikes, making the right moves may be a life-or-death matter. More hurricanes happen during September than any other month, but hurricane season spans late May through November and can push relentless rain and wind up to 100 miles inland. Preparation is important. If you’re told to evacuate, do not hesitate. And if you’re caught in a storm, here are tips on how to stay safe during a hurricane: Stay inside. Don’t try to move to another location. You may not be in the ideal spot, but being on the roads when a storm is underway or imminent is too dangerous to risk. Floodwaters come up fast and move quickly. Water doesn’t need to be more than a foot deep to sweep your car away. Make sure all doors and windows are shut tight. Close your curtains or blinds to put a buffer between you and the glass, which may break from winds, branches, or flying debris. If you have time, bracing exterior doors with heavy furniture is a good idea. Don’t tape or crack your windows. If you haven’t braced your windows with plywood or permanent storm shutters, you’re out of luck at this point. The advice to tape windows is useless, and getting near them as winds pick up is incredibly dangerous. You may also have heard that you should crack your windows to relieve the pressure, and this, too, is bad advice. Letting in the wind and the rain does not help the situation at all. Keep your windows shut, and keep away from them. Stay in the lowest level of the building, and find an interior room. That may be a closet, bathroom, or stairwell. (Stay out of elevators during a storm.) Upper-level and exterior rooms are more vulnerable to damage from high winds; you’re safest where there are the most barriers between you and the storm. Bring pets inside. Avoid using candles. High winds and flame make the risk of fire much too great. Reach for a flashlight instead. Shield yourself with whatever you can. Especially if you don’t have an interior room, putting a table between yourself and a window or door may keep you safe from glass or debris. Cover yourself with a sofa cushion or mattress. You may be instructed to turn off your utilities at some point in anticipation of losing power, so it’s important to monitor for this direction. If you’re without power for either reason, avoid opening your refrigerator so that it keeps food cold as long as possible. Your home may flood during a hurricane. If it does, turn off your electricity and move to a higher floor. Floodwater may be contaminated with sewage. At some point, the wind and rain are likely to die down. Don’t be tempted to go outside; this may just be the eye of the storm and a lead-in to more high winds and pounding rain. For official communications related to hurricanes, please visit the websites of FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Hurricane Center for the latest information. Please note that this is general preparedness information, not specific to a particular storm.

Article / Updated 09-26-2022

Hurricanes are scary, and few people think clearly under that stress. Additionally, a lot of what you need to do to best weather a storm starts well ahead of hurricane season — which runs from late May through November. Start your hurricane safety plan ahead of a storm, while things are calm. The following steps put you and your family in the best position to protect your home and yourselves when a hurricane is on its way. Have an evacuation plan ready . Determine whether you’re in an evacuation zone and watch for updates; the course of a storm may change. Scout your yard and remove any furniture or other items that may get picked up by the wind and fly through windows or otherwise cause destruction. Put any important documents in a watertight container, along with medications and insurance cards. Charge your phone and any other devices you plan to use or carry with you. Turn your fridge to the coldest setting and put a thermometer in there. You’re likely to lose electricity, and a colder starting temp will keep your food cold longer. The thermometer will let you know whether your milk is a lost cause when the electricity’s back. Look into hurricane insurance If you live in an area commonly hit by hurricanes, standard homeowner’s insurance isn’t going to provide everything you need. Such a policy addresses structural damage and typically includes a higher deductible whenever that damage arises from a hurricane. And it may be inadequate to cover your costs for rebuilding and the living expenses you pay while you rebuild. Be sure to look closely at coverage for additional living expenses (ALE), which are essential after extensive storm damage that requires you to rent living space while damage is repaired. Find out what your policy covers and what it excludes. For example, a standard homeowner’s policy probably doesn't cover damage from sewer backups, which are common after major storms. You actually can buy a specific policy for this instance. Much of the damage from a hurricane comes from flooding, which also requires a separate policy. To get the full value from the policies you do buy, make sure you have a complete inventory of what you own and how much it’s worth. Doing so will make filing claims later on much smoother. Keep this documentation and your policies in a water-safe container that you can easily move with you when you evacuate. If you rent or own an apartment in a co-op, you need your own insurance policies, but you also want to be aware of the coverage your building has in place. Hurricane “watch” or “warning?” What makes a watch different from a warning? These terms actually have very specific meanings. A hurricane watch tells you that hurricane-force winds may appear within 48 hours. If you hear a hurricane warning, know that you’re likely to encounter hurricane-force winds within 36 hours. Warnings usually are issued for about 300 miles of coastline at a time. Although satellite technology makes predicting a storm’s approach easy, determining exactly where it will make landfall is still difficult. If you are told to evacuate ahead of a hurricane, never hesitate. Leave as soon as possible. But, if whatever reason, you are unable to get out and find yourself caught in the storm, here's how to survive. Address kids, pets, and special needs during a storm Maybe one family member needs to keep insulin at a just-right temperature, or you have a dog who requires eye drops every four hours. Situations like these require more detailed planning. Be sure to think through a week’s worth of needs for each family member. That may mean finding a physician and forwarding medical records to a medical center in the city where you’ll wait out the storm at your cousin’s house, or it may require even more careful planning. Just make sure that as soon as you know a storm is possible, you carefully consider each family member’s needs for several days. Include the pets, the kids, and the grandma you’ll pick up on the way out of town. For pets and kids, concerns aren’t all that different: Be ready to feed and distract, at a minimum. You need to prepare whatever food, drinks, and toys or special objects will keep the kids and pets as content as possible during the storm. Make sure that your pets have been microchipped or that they’re wearing ID tags. It’s all too easy to become separated during the chaos of a storm. If your kids attend school or daycare, make sure that you know the schools’ evacuation plans. Laminate an “in case of emergency” card for each child that includes your contact information and that of a friend or relative who lives elsewhere and may be able to provide a safe place to stay if a storm arises. As much as possible, keep up your routines, which will reassure members of your family who rely on you. Your kids especially look to you for cues about how to act, so do your best to keep calm. Prepare a storm evacuation plan Uprooting your life in response to an incoming storm presents a host of challenges, like where you’ll end up and who’s in charge of the pet-food supply. Make the transition as smooth as possible by having an evacuation plan in place. It should cover the following: Where you’ll meet if you become separated: Pick a place close to home and one farther away where you can meet up, and choose a family member to serve as point person. This person is who everyone checks in with if you can’t stay in one place. Where you’ll stay: Identify a couple of options ahead of time. Shelters will arise nearby (use FEMA.gov to find them), or maybe a hospitable friend or family member lives outside the evacuation zone. If you have pets, this part of the planning is trickier; most shelters accept only service dogs. How you’ll get there: If you have a car, make sure it’s in good working order and your gas tank is full. If not, plan farther ahead for public transportation (which will shut down as the storm nears) or for someone to drive you. Supplies: Get your disaster supplies kit ready well ahead of time. Grab a phone charger for the car, and if you’re traveling far, have snacks and distractions ready — especially if you’re traveling with kids. Maps: Downed trees or flooding may require you to change your route at the last moment, so be ready with low-tech navigation that cannot let you down no matter the circumstances. IDs and cash: Appoint a family member to make sure everyone has an ID and a little bit of cash. Don’t let this be the time you’re caught with your wallet in your gym bag. Updates: If you don’t want to keep tuned to the weather on the car radio, ask one person to track the storm until you’re safely out of range. Emergency instructions sometimes change as the storm progresses, and you need to have the latest information as you evacuate. Notice: Identify a close friend or family member to check in with when you leave and when you have arrived at shelter outside the evacuation zone. Resolve: Staying in your home is tempting, even when you’ve been ordered to evacuate. Resolve, as a household, to follow those orders and accept no alternatives. Hurricanes are deadly. Agreeing ahead of time that you’ll evacuate can save valuable time debating the issue later. If you’re on the coast, get out well in advance of the storm surge When a hurricane pushes ocean water ashore, that push is called a storm surge and is responsible for more deaths and damage than any other part of the storm. Depending on how and where the storm hits, a storm surge — measured in how far above sea level the water rises — can bring almost 30 feet of water to land. This water moves at high speed, bringing tremendous destructive power to everything in its path. These surges are unpredictable, and they often arrive before the storms themselves. When they hit, water levels can rise ten feet in just minutes. Help cannot make it to you under these circumstances, and you are unlikely to be able to drive away from a storm surge. If you’re near a coast and anywhere close to a hurricane’s path, you must evacuate. If you see it coming, it’s too late. The surge can easily go from an inch to several feet before you even make it out of your driveway. Keep an axe in your attic so that if for some reason you are trapped in your home during a surge, you have an escape route through the roof. Travel to hurricane prone areas Because hurricanes happen near coastlines, a lot of popular vacation spots are susceptible. When you’re thinking about planning a vacation, take a look at the storm season before you book tickets and hotel rooms. Travel insurance that covers natural disasters can help, and you should check with hotels and airlines about policies regarding refunds or rescheduling in the event of a storm. For official communications related to hurricanes, please visit the websites of FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Hurricane Center for the latest information. Please note that this is general preparedness information, not specific to a particular storm.

Article / Updated 09-01-2022

Celebrate everything that is beautiful about our planet by reconnecting with nature, learning more about the natural environment, or picking up a new eco-friendly habit or two. April 22 is Earth Day — a world-wide celebration commemorating everything that makes our blue-marble planet unique and beautiful, and all the things we can do to protect it. Starting all the way back during the environmental movement of the 1970s, Earth Day has grown to become a powerful motivator for individuals and companies alike to become more environmentally aware and responsible. From local volunteer cleanups to nation-wide conservation initiatives, this year is no different, with numerous events happening at both the grassroots and state levels. Want to join in on the celebration? Find Earth Day events in your area, by visiting https://www.earthday.org/ The First Earth Day Did you know... In response to public outcry to the Santa Barbara Oil Spill of 1969, U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson organized a nationwide "teach-in" about environmental issues to take place on April 22, 1970. More than 2,000 colleges and universities, 10,000 public schools, and 20 million citizens participated. Aside from volunteering or donating to an eco-friendly cause, there are plenty of other ways to celebrate Earth Day — here are just a few. Plant a healthy diet You’ve probably already heard about the massive environmental impact that animal farming has on the planet. It is second only to fossil fuels in terms of contributing to human-made greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change. And, while the jump from a traditional omnivorous diet to a full-blown vegan one is not something most people can accomplish overnight, cutting down on red meat is a great first step. Something as simple as committing to meat-free Mondays can have a significant influence on your health and the environment. Get started by taking a crack at one or two of our favorite plant-based recipes found in Plant-Based Diet Cookbook For Dummies. Channel your inner green thumb You don’t need to become an expert horticulturist to help save our planet. Simply buying local or better yet, growing some of your own food can help reduce your carbon footprint — not to mention, teach you valuable transferable skills like diligence and patience. Plus, there’s just something so satisfying about working with your hands, especially if you’re used to working in front of a screen all day. You can start by growing some common herbs like rosemary or thyme. They are fairly resilient and, depending on where you live, can even be grown indoors. If you lack the space to garden, look for farmers markets in your area or, better yet, join a community garden, these gardens are becoming increasingly popular, even in the most urban of cities. Don't worry if you have no previous gardening knowledge — beginner-friendly resources, such as Gardening Basics For Dummies, will help you get there. You can also find a farmers market near you using the USDA National Farmers Market Directory. Stay informed It’s no secret that our planet is in grave danger as a result of climate change. But, contrary to what you may feel after reading all the increasingly worrisome headlines, you must remember — there’s still hope. And, while the biggest contributors of climate change, like animal farming and fossil fuel burning, may seem so far removed from your daily life, you’d be surprised how much of a difference you as an individual can make. Staying informed is perhaps the easiest way to help environmental causes. As an informed citizen, you have the power to choose more wisely what products to buy, what companies and practices to support, and even who you vote for in the next election. Don't know where to start? Check out Climate Change For Dummies to help you navigate this complex topic. More ways to greenify your life There’s always something more we can do to reduce our environmental impact on the planet, but that should not discourage us from taking action — after all, every little bit counts. One small change in your daily routine today will lead you to more and more lasting changes in the future. If you’re ready to explore even more ways to go green, check out Green Living For Dummies for a more comprehensive guide to sustainable living. From the team at Dummies, we wish all our fellow earthlings a happy and green Earth Day.

Article / Updated 08-11-2022

Environmental science is all about finding ways to live more sustainably, which means using resources today in a way that maintains their supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t mean living without luxuries but rather being aware of your resource consumption and reducing unnecessary waste. Reduce household energy use. Energy conservation is itself a source of energy. Here are several simple ways to reduce your household energy use: Turn off appliances and lights that you’re not using. Install energy-efficient appliances. Use a programmable thermostat that lowers or raises the temperature when you’re not home. Set your thermostat lower than usual in the winter and bundle up. Open windows to allow a breeze instead of turning on the air conditioning. Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer. Use an electric teakettle rather than a stovetop kettle to boil water. Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs). Eat locally. A powerful way to live more sustainably is to eat locally. The convenience of supermarkets has changed how people think about food. You can stroll through aisles stocked with fruits, vegetables, and other products from all over the world any time of year. But these products consume huge amounts of fossil fuel energy to get from those global locations to your corner supermarket. Dispose with disposables. Previous generations didn’t dream of single-use razors, forks, cups, bags, and food storage containers, but these days, you can find a plastic version of almost any object and then throw that object away after you use it. Many of the environmental health issues today stem from toxins released into the environment by trash. Even trash that’s properly disposed of, such as that in a landfill, requires careful monitoring to ensure that dangerous chemicals don’t enter the surrounding environment. When you make a purchase, consider the item’s life expectancy: How long can the item be used? Will it have more than one use? When you’re done with it, will it end up in the trash? Start investing in reusable products for the items you most often throw away. Plant seeds. Try growing your own food. Simply plant a few seeds in a corner of your yard or in a container on your porch or windowsill. You don’t need acres; a few square feet on a patio, along the driveway, or in a window box can provide enough space to grow edible herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Recycle. Recycle as much as possible! If your neighborhood or apartment complex doesn’t offer recycling pickup, either find a drop-off location or request the curbside service. Buying products labeled post-consumer lets companies know that recycling is the way to go! For other items, such as CFLs, batteries, cellphones, and electronics, find an appropriate recycler. Be sure to ask electronics recyclers where these materials go for recycling and avoid companies that ship electronic waste overseas for unregulated “recycling” and salvage operations. Goodwill Industries International is one place that accepts electronics for responsible recycling. Resell and donate items. Items that you no longer need can get an extended life through resale and donation. By extending the life of any product, you help reduce dependence on disposable or cheaply made single-use products that end up in landfills. Try reselling clothing and children’s things through a secondhand or consignment retailer or consider donating them to a nonprofit resale organization (such as Goodwill) or charity organization (such as the Salvation Army or American Cancer Society) that will redistribute them to those in need. Drink from the tap. Dependence on bottled water has added more than a million tons of plastic to the waste stream every year. One reason people rely on bottled water is because they believe it’s safer and better tasting than tap water. But most municipal water supplies in the U.S. provide safe, clean, fresh water (and many bottled waters are just bottled from city water supplies anyway). If you don’t like the flavor of your tap water, consider the one-time investment in a filtration system. If you like the convenience of bottled water, purchase refillable bottles and keep one in your fridge, one in your car, and one at the office. Encourage your employer to install filters and offer glasses or reusable bottles at work, too. Save water. An easy way to live more sustainably is to conserve household water use. Consider installing water-efficient toilets or dual-flush toilets that let you choose whether to use a full flush (for solid waste) or half-flush (for liquid waste). Newer clothes washers can automatically sense the smallest level of water needed for each load. Smaller changes, such as switching to water-saving shower heads and adding aerators to your sink faucets, are also effective ways to significantly reduce household water use. To conserve water outdoors, use landscaping adapted to your local environment. When buying plants, look for drought-tolerant species and varieties and be sure to plant them in proper soil and sun conditions to reduce their need for excess watering. Set up sprinkler systems so they don’t water the sidewalk, the driveway, and other paved, impermeable surfaces. Rely less on your car. Using fossil fuels to support one person in each car on the road is clearly no longer sustainable. Investigate mass transit options in your town or city, such as a bus system, a light rail train system, or carpool and vanpool services for commuters. When traveling close to home, walk or ride your bike. Purchase fair-trade products. When you purchase items that are imported from all over the world — particularly coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, chocolate, and fruit — look for the fair-trade certification. This designation tells you that these items were grown using sustainable methods of agriculture and that local people are receiving fair prices for the goods they produce. Items that don’t have the fair-trade certification may have been produced unsustainably and may be the product of exploitative labor practices that don’t benefit the local people.

Article / Updated 04-18-2022

Tornadoes are nature's most violent storms. Nothing the atmosphere dishes out is more destructive. They can sweep up anything that moves. They lift buildings from their foundations. They make a swirling cloud of violently flying debris. They are very dangerous to all living things, not only because of the sheer power of their winds, but the missiles of debris they create. Wind measuring instruments are destroyed by tornadoes, although according to reliable estimates, their winds can exceed 250 miles per hour. Flying at those speeds, pieces of straw can penetrate wood. According to most scientists, the top wind speeds in the strongest tornadoes are about 280 miles per hour. In an average year, 1,200 tornadoes are reported in the United States, far more than any other place in the world. On average, tornadoes cause 80 deaths in the U.S. every year and 1,500 injuries, although averages don't mean very much when it comes to these storms. In 1998, for example, 130 people died in tornadoes in the U.S., including 42 who were killed in an outbreak in central Florida and 34 who died in a single tornado in Birmingham, Alabama. Most human casualties are people in mobile homes and vehicles. The deadliest single tornado struck on March 18, 1925. In three and a half hours, it traveled 219 miles through Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people. Most tornadoes, nearly 90 percent, travel from the southwest to the northeast, although some follow quick-changing zigzag paths. Weak tornadoes, or decaying tornadoes, often have a thin ropelike appearance. The most violent tornadoes have a broad, dark, funnel-shape that extends from a dark wall cloud of a large thunderstorm. There have been reports of some tornadoes that practically stand still, hovering over a single field. Others crawl along at 5 miles per hour. But the average tornado travels 35 miles per hour, and some have been clocked at more than 70 miles per hour. A tornado in 1917 traveled a record 293 miles. The average width of a tornado's path is about 140 yards, although some have been reported to be more than a mile wide. Most tornadoes occur between 3 p.m. and 9 p.m., although they have been known to strike at all hours of the day or night. They usually last only about 15 minutes, although, some have been known to stay on the ground for hours. Tornado Alley The size of the place known as Tornado Alley expands through spring and summer as heating from the sun grows warmer and the flow of warm moisture from the Gulf of Mexico spreads farther north. An area that includes central Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas is the hard core of the season, but before it is over, as Figure 1 illustrates, Tornado Alley extends north to Nebraska and Iowa. Figure 1: Tornado Alley. It shrinks and swells over time, but there is only one Tornado Alley. Nowhere else in the world sees weather conditions in a combination that is so perfect for these storms. Here's what makes the storms of Tornado Alley so bad: Beginning in spring and continuing through summer, low-level winds from the south and southeast bring a plentiful supply of warm tropical moisture up from the Gulf of Mexico into the Great Plains. From down off of the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains or from out of the deserts of northern Mexico come other flows of very dry air that travel about 3,000 feet above the ground. From 10,000 feet, the prevailing westerly winds, sometimes accompanied by a powerful jet stream, race overhead, carrying cool air from the Pacific Ocean. Sometimes, the winds form a convective cap lid of warm air over the Plains that the rising air is eventually able to break through and explode upward into the sky. These are the ingredients for the most severe thunderstorms and most powerful twisters — sharp differences in temperatures at different levels, big contrasts in dryness and moisture, and layers of powerful winds that are blowing from different directions at different speeds. Forecasting Weather forecasters in Tornado Alley have a pretty good idea of the menu of conditions that are necessary to make severe thunderstorms, and they're pretty good at being able to forecast that severe thunderstorms are on the way. They can say that large hailstones and strong winds are likely, and a tornado is a possibility during the next several hours or the next day or two. But they can't forecast a tornado. The question of which of the conditions on the menu for severe thunderstorms actually causes tornadoes to form in these storms remains one of the most difficult mysteries of weather science. A severe thunderstorm that causes a tornado can look exactly like a severe thunderstorm that does not cause a tornado. Weather researchers have been working on the problem for years, chasing tornadoes all over the countryside, and still it is one of those things that is not well understood. The presence in the area of supercell thunderstorms really puts pressure on forecasters in local weather service field offices. The national Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma, is on the phone giving advice, but the buck stops in the local office. The local forecasters know that a lethal tornado could come spinning down out of the dark cloud at any moment, but they can't be sure until they see it show up on a Doppler radar screen or a funnel is actually observed. Warning the public Billions of dollars have been spent in the last several years on research and computer modeling, radars and satellite technologies, and high-speed communications. Progress has been made. On average, when tornado warnings were issued in 1994, communities had six minutes to react. By 1998, the average lead time for warnings had stretched to 12 minutes. Television meteorologists and other media outlets play vital roles in such weather emergencies, continuously broadcasting the locations and predicted paths of tornadoes. Many lives are being saved by the increased public awareness and the lengthening time of advance warning that is available. In fact, the longer lead-time has reached the point where people are rethinking the idea of public shelters for tornadoes. As minutes are added to advance warnings, now it may be possible for people in harm's way to rush to a shelter before a tornado hits. More than 15,000 severe storm and tornado watches and warnings are issued by the National Weather Service every year. Most of the time, they are accurate. Sometimes, they are missed. Occasionally there are false alarms. The successes are taken for granted and often overlooked in the details of a tornado disaster. The failures and the false alarms seem to be remembered forever. Perfectly reasonable people who will forgive you for missing the rain on their picnic now have a different attitude. When it comes to tornadoes, they want perfection. Lives and limbs What are the odds of a tornado crossing your path? Even in Tornado Alley, the odds are against such an unhappy occasion. When it happens, of course, it's a disaster — but still, the odds are high against it. People think about tornadoes in tornado country the way people in the Southeast think about hurricanes and people in California think about earthquakes. It's part of the background of daily life that you really don't give very much thought to, because chances are, it's not going to happen. The five-dollar word for this is complacency — a self-satisfied unawareness of danger — and somebody is always getting on their high horse about it. The truth is, day in and day out, most people have other things to worry about that just seem more real. And it's just human nature to be optimistic, and to think things are going to turn out for the best. But it leaves you open for some terrible surprises once in a while, which is kind of sad, when you think about it. Government people in the disaster business and American Red Cross relief workers who deal with victims of these storms see this sense of surprise on people's faces all the time. A tornado watch or a warning? Don't confuse a watch with a warning. There is a big difference. Here is what they are about: Tornado watch: When National Weather Service forecasters issue a tornado watch, they are making a forecast that tornadoes are possible in your area. It's time to remain alert to signs of approaching storms and to make sure that you are prepared for an emergency. Tornado warning: This is an emergency message. A tornado has been sighted in your area, or weather radar indicates one is present. Now is the time to get to safety, to put your emergency plan into action. Tornado dos — and don'ts! The National Weather Service and the American Red Cross have put together these basic tips about tornado safety: Seek shelter immediately, preferably underground in a basement or in an interior room on the lowest floor, such as a closet or bathroom. Stay away from windows. Get out of your car or your mobile home and seek shelter in a sturdy structure. In the open, lie flat in a ditch or depression. Protect your head from flying debris. Do not try to outrun a tornado in your car. Do not seek shelter under a bridge over overpass. The idea that these are safe shelters is just plain wrong.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-12-2022

The ocean is big — really, really big — both as a body of water and as a topic. It encompasses physical characteristics, its ecosystems and inhabitants, its influence on climate and weather, the sustainable use of its resources, and much more. This Cheat Sheet touches on a few key topics.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-07-2022

Environmental science is a field of study focused on Earth’s environment and the resources it provides to every living organism, including humans. Environmental scientists focus on studying the environment and everything in it and finding sustainable solutions to environmental issues. In particular, this means meeting the needs of human beings (and other organisms) today without damaging the environment, depleting resources, or compromising the earth’s ability to meet the resource needs of the future. A sustainable solution to an environmental problem must be ecologically sound, economically viable, and culturally acceptable. This Cheat Sheet summarizes some key aspects of what environmental scientists study.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-08-2022

This Cheat Sheet describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions. Although climate change is connected to ugly futures, melting icecaps, rising sea levels, soaring temperatures, worsening hurricanes and monsoons, and the list goes on, it’s also a link to a better future. Climate change is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-01-2022

Who doesn’t talk about the weather? But, if you know the meanings of some key weather words, you can talk even more fluently. And clouds provide scope for imagination and help in predicting and anticipating weather changes.