Environmental Science Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 05-15-2023

Environmental science is a field of study focused on Earth’s environment and the resources it provides to every living organism, including humans. Environmental scientists focus on studying the environment and everything in it and finding sustainable solutions to environmental issues. In particular, this means meeting the needs of human beings (and other organisms) today without damaging the environment, depleting resources, or compromising the earth’s ability to meet the resource needs of the future. A sustainable solution to an environmental problem must be ecologically sound, economically viable, and culturally acceptable. This Cheat Sheet summarizes some key aspects of what environmental scientists study.

Article / Updated 04-20-2023

Conversations about the cause of global warming typically focus on the big offenders — the worst industries, dirtiest factories, and scoff-law nations. There’s nothing wrong with that. But everyone plays a role in climate change. Each of us uses energy — specifically, fossil fuels — on a daily basis: Electricity: From the moment the alarm sounds in the morning until you shut off the computer or TV at night, you’re connected to an electrical grid, often fueled by coal or oil. Transportation: Everyone needs energy to move from here to there — a steady supply of gas for your car or diesel fuel for the bus you ride to work. Food: Most of humanity’s food travels great distances before it arrives in homes, a journey it undertakes thanks to greenhouse gas (GHG)-producing fuels. Typically, in talking about climate change, big business and government tend to point the finger at the individual. Asking citizens “What are you prepared to do?” even when it’s hard and expensive to make personal changes without a major structural shift further up the food chain, becomes an excuse for inaction by those with the real power to make change. The COVID pandemic gave a real-life lesson in how much the individual is really to blame. For all of 2020, citizens everywhere around the world drove a whole lot less and flew hardly at all. You would have thought that GHGs would have dropped and in a big way. They dropped — but only by 6.4 percent, according to Nature. And because of emissions in previous years, the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere continued to rise, smashing through previous records to 412.5 parts per million (ppm) — more than at any time in more than 3 million years. Still, individual choices do matter. The most powerful individual change you can make is political by letting your elected officials know you demand they take the climate emergency seriously. And the personal choices you make are important. They send a signal. They keep your own sense of personal choice and personal power intact. How transportation impacts global warming About 24 percent of all GHG emissions come from moving people and goods, according to the World Resources Institute. In the United States, the proportion is higher; closer to one-third of emissions come from transportation — 29 percent. In Canada, it’s 25 percent. Almost all transportation — about 95 percent, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — runs on oil-based fuels, such as diesel and gas. This explains why transportation accounts for such a large portion of overall emissions (electrification of transport is rising fast around the world, but it’s still only about 2.2 percent of all vehicles). Cars and diesel trucks are the top two offenders, but ships, airplanes, trains, and buses play a part, too. We discuss the culprits of driving and flying in the following sections. The figure below shows the breakdown of how each mode of transportation contributes to GHG emissions. Driving emissions Whether you need to run errands or drive the kids to soccer practice, cars, minivans, and SUVs are useful and often perceived as necessary. Most households in industrialized countries own at least one car because most cities and housing developments are built around road infrastructure — making it difficult to survive without one. However, that internal combustion engine now has serious competition — hybrid cars that generate energy to a battery to reduce fuel use and electronic vehicles (EVs), vehicles that run 100 percent on electricity. These technologies promise to make the internal combustion obsolete, just as that technology disrupted the horse and buggy. In November 2021, Hertz, a major U.S. car rental company, placed an order for 100,000 Tesla EVs — that’s how fast things are changing. Despite the pandemic, global sales of EVs increased by 43 percent in 2020. Still, even as sales of EVs and hybrids ramp up, in 2020 only 1 in 250 cars on the road is electric. The majority of people in the developing world still don’t have access to a personal vehicle — but that’s quickly changing. China is soaring ahead in private car ownership, which jumped from 45 million cars in 2009 to more than 225 million in 2019! Total EV sales in China were 1.3 million, an increase of 8 percent compared to 2019. The 2019 sales of EVs in China amounted to 41 percent of all EVs sold worldwide. Flying emissions Planes burn fuel similar to kerosene, which gives off more emissions than the gasoline in your family car. The 2018 IPCC special report on 1.5 degrees found that aviation has grown to 14 percent of transport sector global carbon dioxide emissions. Not only does flying emit a lot of GHGs, it emits them in the atmosphere in a more damaging way. The warming impact of the exhaust from air travel is far worse than the same volume of GHGs emitted on the ground. People made about 38.9 billion flights in 2019, and that dropped to less than 17 billion in 2020 due to the COVID pandemic. Still, it’s shocking that in 2007, globally, there were 4 billion individual plane trips for business or pleasure. And, even though flights dropped dramatically in 2020, they have started rising once again. The people of China are flying more and exploring their own country by air and rail. They’ve also increased what is called outbound tourism — that is Chinese tourists exploring other countries. In 2003, 20 million tourists from China explored the world. By 2019, that figure was up to 155 million! China now tops the charts for outbound tourism. Concern about the climate crisis is leading some countries to reduce flying. Impressively, the French government decided post-COVID that no domestic flights would be allowed where train travel was available. Increasingly, climate-aware travelers work to eliminate air travel altogether. The pandemic allowed many organizations to experience meetings — big and small — using online video technologies. The cost of flights and the wasted time traveling have likely made a permanent change in how employers see the practicality of video conferencing. This could increase the trend to staying home and avoiding flights wherever you can. If you have to fly, buying carbon offsets is a worthwhile option. Energy uses around the house In Canada and the United States, the floor space of the average home has continued to grow while family size is shrinking. House size has real implications for the climate crisis. The bigger the home, the more energy required to heat, cool, and light it. Fewer people are occupying — and heating and cooling — more space. When it comes to energy use in your home, you can think about it in two ways: Direct energy: This term refers to the energy you use, which comes from gas or fuel oil that you consume directly — such as the oil-fed heaters or propane gas stoves you may have in your home. Indirect energy: This term refers to how some other energy — oil, hydroelectric, wind, or nuclear power — is used to produce the direct energy. For example, natural gas is used to heat the oil sands enough so that the otherwise solid bitumen flows and can be extracted. How your electricity is produced affects your individual GHG emissions. The energy that people use in their homes accounts for about 25 percent of GHG emissions around the world. Most of the fossil fuel energy you use directly goes toward heating your home. You use most of your electricity to power your lighting and appliances. See the figure below for a complete breakdown of the percentages of GHG emissions produced from heating, lighting, and other energy uses. Your energy use may be very different than the average home. For example, you may not have an air conditioner. When talking about climate change, scientists mean changes to the global climate systems. But people can also talk about “climate control” in their homes. Modern air conditioning can make the indoors feel like winter in a sweltering summer. Controlling the climate in your home can also impact the global climate system. Controlling the climate in your home Homes in the United States create 150 million metric tons of carbon dioxide every year from heating and cooling alone for 333 million people, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. That’s a full 2020 percent of U.S. GHG emissions. Check out the following sections for how heating and cooling your home plays a role in global warming. Heating Heating takes either direct energy or electricity, depending on whether you have an oil or gas furnace or electrical baseboard heaters. Other types of home heating, such as wood stoves or gas fireplaces, also create emissions. The U.N Food and Agricultural Organization notes that burning wood for home heating (and in some countries, cooking, as well) accounts for about 6 percent of energy use in the world. Burning wood adds to GHG emissions both through the carbon dioxide released during burning and through deforestation. Older furnaces emit more GHG than newer models. These old clunkers guzzle fossil fuels, but unfortunately, many homeowners cling to them, worried about the expense of buying a new unit. In reality, these homeowners can save money if they buy a new energy-efficient furnace, which would save them significantly on energy costs — and be less costly to the planet, too. Cooling Electricity used to be used only for keeping the lights on. Now, it’s what keeps people cool all summer long. In fact, the largest share of home electricity use now goes directly to air conditioning. And in places such as south central Canada, the greater share of power demand has recently shifted from winter to summer. With more 86 degrees F (30 degrees C) days every summer — thanks to global warming — the demand for air conditioning goes up annually. Only industrialized countries used air conditioning, for the most part, until now. Recent news reports show that sales of home air conditioners have tripled in the last ten years in China. As countries such as China and India move to catch up to industrialized countries, residents are starting to widely use luxuries such as air conditioning. Add warming temperatures into the mix, and you can see a growing air-conditioning trend and a growing demand for electricity to meet that desire. Traditionally, most Europeans never considered air conditioning. But because killer heatwaves have ravaged Europe in recent years, this perspective is changing. For example, the U.K. had to consider new labor laws — in the past, laws ensured a legal minimum temperature so workers could stay warm enough. Because of intense summer heat, they’ve also had to consider legal maximum temperatures! Perhaps the most surprising area to need air conditioning is in Canada’s far north. Buildings in the Northwest Territories and the Yukon are now being built with air conditioning. The average high temperature in the summer in those territories ranges from 70 to 80 degrees F (in the 20s C), but has been warming up recently and has reached the 90s F (about 30 degrees C). Your food choices and global warming Like a warm home in freezing weather, food is a necessity, not a luxury. But sadly, when people sought to make food more accessible and more convenient and to offer a greater variety, they often did so without considering the environmental toll their innovations might have. Much of the food that people buy at the grocery store uses a lot of energy to get there — and creates a lot of GHG emissions as a result. Here are some of the key offenders: Frozen food: Whether you’re talking refrigerated or frozen, these foods burn energy when they’re made, while they’re being transported, and even when they’re sitting in a freezer or cooler in the grocery store (or in your home). The most-energy-used-per-serving prize goes to freeze-dried coffee. Processed and packaged food: Moving these foods through the production line takes energy, as does making the packaging (not to mention the emissions that come from all that packaging when it ends up in a landfill). Food from afar: Elizabeth never even saw a kiwi until she was about 18 years old. Her daughter started asking for them for her school lunch in first grade. You may enjoy strawberries and mangoes in the dead of winter, when you can’t pick fresh fruit right in your backyard, but moving exotic fruits and veggies around the world by plane, ship, and truck has a real cost in energy. Could people afford them if companies factored in the cost to the climate? And why should your apple be more well-traveled than you? Meat products: Feeding livestock takes an average of 10 pounds of grain — grain that plays a large role in agricultural emissions — to produce 1 pound of meat. Also, when people eat more meat, more land is needed to raise livestock, which often means clearing forests and losing trees that breathe in our carbon dioxide.

Article / Updated 04-04-2023

The rash of tornadoes that came in early spring 2023, devastating parts of the U.S. South and Midwest, no doubt had many people thinking about how climate change is affecting the weather. Tornadoes seem to be happening earlier in the season than ever, and in larger numbers. These violent storms also seem to be trending toward larger in size. Looking back to December 2021, a season not typical for tornadoes, northeast Arkansas, Tennessee, and western Kentucky were hit with tornadoes three-quarters of a mile wide with wind speeds that peaked between 158 and 206 miles per hour. Still, the connection between more severe and unexpected tornadoes and climate change isn’t linked with high confidence — yet. More major weather disasters Major natural disasters have always happened. Storms, hurricanes, floods, and droughts are all part of the planet’s natural weather and climate system. But, increasingly, natural disasters aren’t so natural. Human activity — burning fossil fuels and removing forest cover — has thrown the carbon balance out of whack. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) that civilization pumps into the atmosphere are driving increasingly dangerous weather. Earth is experiencing more droughts, floods, more intense hurricanes, forest fires and wildfires, heavier rainfalls, rising sea levels, slowing ocean currents, and more severe winter storms and major heatwaves. Warming oceans help fuel hurricanes Global warming is heating up Earth’s oceans. In fact, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that oceans have absorbed more than 90 percent of the heat from global warming. Hurricanes are now occurring in the top half of the northern hemisphere, such as Canada, because of these warmer ocean temperatures, particularly at the surface. Historically, colder ocean surface temperatures in the north slowed down hurricanes, turning them into powerful, but nowhere near as destructive, tropical storms. Now, however, the water’s warmer temperatures don’t impede storms. In fact, warming up surface water is like revving the hurricane’s engine. The number of tropical storms and hurricanes hasn’t increased. In fact, that number has stayed fairly uniform over the past 50 years, the IPCC reports. The intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes, however, has increased. Scientists have confirmed that hurricanes (also called cyclones and typhoons) have grown in strength and destructive force, while also growing in the geographical areas subject to these intense storms, moving closer to the poles. Extreme weather events from floods, to droughts, heatwaves, wildfires, and hurricanes are confirmed in the 2021 IPCC report and linked with high confidence to global warming. The first ever hurricanes to reach as far north as Canada were in 2003 in Halifax on the east coast (2003’s Hurricane Juan was the first full-force tropical hurricane ever to hit Atlantic Canada) and in 2006 in Vancouver on the west. Bigger storms, more damage These bigger storms and hurricanes bring rougher coastal storms, bigger storm surges, higher water levels, taller waves, more storm damage, and flooding. Scientists also see an increased tendency of these storms that stall over one area, such as Harvey in 2017, Florence in 2018, and Dorian in 2019. Some storm-protection barriers may not be strong enough to protect against the hurricanes that are coming, and some cities might need to reevaluate their protection. (Think New Orleans!) For the first time, the IPCC's 2021 report confirmed a risk (at low probability) that the excess carbon dioxide that people put into the air could disrupt the carbon cycle and turn the planet’s life-support system into a vicious cycle. Rainfall (or lack thereof) Changes in temperature are altering evaporation and precipitation patterns, which means more rain in some places and less in others. The IPCC says these changes also mean more intense dry spells and rainstorms overall, with high-latitude areas in Europe, Russia, and Canada taking the hardest drenching. The IPCC reports that inland mid-latitude regions — such as central Canada and inland Europe and Asia — are generally most at risk from more frequent and harsher droughts than what those areas currently experience. Although not in those regions, the land along the Mediterranean in Europe may also experience increased droughts. Droughts and high temperatures put major stress on forests and grasslands; dry, parched vegetation is a fire waiting to happen. The soil suffers, too. Dried-out soil can release into the air the carbon that it used to store. Drought is hard on people and animals because all living things depend on water. Global warming is also causing deserts around the world to expand. In Africa, the Sahara is getting bigger, while in China the Gobi Desert’s growth is a threat. In both places, countries are trying to arrest the increased desertification with green walls of tree planting. The Great Green Wall in China started with tree planting in the 1970s with billions of trees planted. Although it hasn’t been entirely successful, African nations are trying to learn from mistakes in China, such as planting in all one species, and hold back the Sahara with its own Green Wall. The IPCC reports that the duo of natural warming and human-caused warming has caused the number of dry areas around the world to double since the 1970s. More rain, rising seas lead to flooding Three climate change consequences lead to flooding: Rising sea levels Quicker-melting snow and glaciers More intense rainfall The IPCC expects that the rising sea levels and harsher rainstorms will increase the number of floods in many places, including both flash floods (floods that happen very suddenly, often because of heavy rainfall and/or the ground is so dry it can’t quickly absorb the rain) and large-scale floods (floods that stick around for a while, caused either by prolonged rainfall or water that can’t drain away easily). Climate change scenarios typically predict that average annual precipitation will remain nearly constant, but that areas will experience long periods of drought followed by an enormous volume of rain. This happened in California from early January to mid-March 2023, when heavy rain caused floods in large areas of the state. There was widespread property damage and at least 22 fatalities. Another example of flooding after drought occurred in China in summer of 2021, when as much rain fell in three days as usually falls in a year. That nation’s annual precipitation fell within days on the dry and desiccated lands. Three hundred people died. In the same summer of climate emergencies, torrential rains caused huge floods in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, killing 200 people. The most likely areas to experience more flooding are high-latitude countries, such as the United Kingdom.

Article / Updated 04-04-2023

Celebrate everything that is beautiful about our planet by reconnecting with nature, learning more about the natural environment, or picking up a new eco-friendly habit or two. April 22 is Earth Day — a world-wide celebration commemorating everything that makes our blue-marble planet unique and beautiful, and all the things we can do to protect it. Starting all the way back during the environmental movement of the 1970s, Earth Day has grown to become a powerful motivator for individuals and companies alike to become more environmentally aware and responsible. From local volunteer cleanups to nation-wide conservation initiatives, this year is no different, with numerous events happening at both the grassroots and state levels. Want to join in on the celebration? Find Earth Day events in your area, by visiting https://www.earthday.org/ The first Earth Day In response to public outcry to the Santa Barbara Oil Spill of 1969, U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson, a Democrat from Wisconsin, organized a nationwide "teach-in" on college campuses about environmental issues to take place on April 22, 1970. Rep. Pete McCloskey, a Republican from California, joined Nelson as his co-chair to organize the event. More than 2,000 colleges and universities, 10,000 public schools, and 20 million citizens participated. They demonstrated to raise awareness about the health impacts of 150 years of industrial development. Unfortunately, today, we face daunting threats from climate change. If you want to make a difference, there are plenty of ways to help and celebrate Earth Day — here are just a few. Plant a healthy diet You’ve probably already heard about the massive environmental impact that animal farming has on the planet. It is second only to fossil fuels in terms of contributing to human-made greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change. And, while the jump from a traditional omnivorous diet to a full-blown vegan one is not something most people can accomplish overnight, cutting down on red meat is a great first step. Something as simple as committing to meat-free Mondays can have a significant influence on your health and the environment. Get started by taking a crack at one or two of our favorite plant-based recipes found in Plant-Based Diet Cookbook For Dummies. Channel your inner green thumb You don’t need to become an expert horticulturist to help save our planet. Simply buying local or better yet, growing some of your own food can help reduce your carbon footprint — not to mention, teach you valuable transferable skills like diligence and patience. Plus, there’s just something so satisfying about working with your hands, especially if you’re used to working in front of a screen all day. You can start by growing some common herbs like rosemary or thyme. They are fairly resilient and, depending on where you live, can even be grown indoors. If you lack the space to garden, look for farmers markets in your area or, better yet, join a community garden, these gardens are becoming increasingly popular, even in the most urban of cities. As you're planning your garden, think about irrigation and conservation: How can you use the least amount of water while growing your plants? Parts of the world, including in the U.S., are experiencing drought, and fresh, clean water is not something any of us can take for granted. If you need some ideas for conserving water, one excellent resource is: Low-Water Landscaping For Dummies. Don't worry if you have no previous gardening knowledge — beginner-friendly resources, such as Gardening Basics For Dummies, will help you get there. You can also find a farmers market near you using the USDA National Farmers Market Directory. Stay informed It’s no secret that our planet is in grave danger as a result of climate change. But, contrary to what you may feel after reading all the increasingly worrisome headlines, you must remember — there’s still hope. And, while the biggest contributors of climate change, like animal farming and fossil fuel burning, may seem so far removed from your daily life, you’d be surprised how much of a difference you as an individual can make. Staying informed is perhaps the easiest way to help environmental causes. As an informed citizen, you have the power to choose more wisely what products to buy, what companies and practices to support, and even who you vote for in the next election. Don't know where to start? Check out Climate Change For Dummies to help you navigate this complex topic. More ways to greenify your life There’s always something more we can do to reduce our environmental impact on the planet, but that should not discourage us from taking action — after all, every little bit counts. One small change in your daily routine today will lead you to more and more lasting changes in the future. If you’re ready to explore even more ways to go green, check out Green Living For Dummies for a more comprehensive guide to sustainable living. We also have a number of other books with invaluable information and ideas for reducing waste by recycling and reusing items in a different areas of our lives. Here are a few of the latest: Recycling For Dummies Upcycling Furniture and Home Decor For Dummies Sustainable Fashion For Dummies From the team at Dummies, we wish all of our fellow earthlings a happy and green Earth Day.

Article / Updated 02-15-2023

An earthquake is the sometimes violent shaking of the ground caused by movements of Earth's tectonic plates. Most earthquakes occur along fault lines, which is where two tectonic plates come together. Earthquakes strike suddenly and violently and can occur at any time, day or night, throughout the year. Smaller earthquakes might crack some windows and shake products off store shelves, but larger earthquakes can cause death and massive destruction, devastating communities and debilitating local economies. A tectonic shift Earthquakes occur when large sections of the Earths' crust — called tectonic plates — shift. There are seven primary tectonic plates (African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific, and South American) and a number of smaller, secondary and tertiary plates. Because of underlying movement in the Earth's mantle, these plates can shift. This shifting of one plate causes it to rub against or push under or over an adjacent plate. The place where two plates meet is called a fault line, and it's at these fault lines that earthquakes occur. Earthquakes are often followed by smaller earthquakes called aftershocks, which can occur over days or weeks as the plates settle into equilibrium. In the United States, California experiences damaging earthquakes most often, but Alaska has the greatest number of large earthquakes. They occur mostly in uninhabited areas, though, and so don't cause as much damage. What can earthquakes do? The violent ground-shaking of earthquakes by itself can cause damage to homes, roads, and bridges; shake products off shelves; and lead to injuries and death, but earthquakes can also lead to other natural disasters: Avalanches and landslides: Earthquakes can shake snow, soil, and rock right off a sloped surface. Landslides have been a particular problem in California, where a number of mountainside homes have ended up in the Pacific Ocean because of them. Surface faulting: Surface faulting is a change in the relative positions of things on opposite sides of a fault line. For instance, a straight section of railroad track that runs across a fault line might have a nasty curve in it after an earthquake, rendering it useless for train travel. Tsunamis: Tsunamis are a series of waves that are caused by the sudden displacement of large amounts of ocean water, usually because of underwater earthquakes. When tsunamis hit land, they can knock over buildings, wash away cars, and cause massive flooding. The most massive tsunamis can reach heights of well over 500 feet. Liquefaction: Liquefaction occurs when water-logged soil acts like a liquid and causes sections of ground to sink or slide. As well as damage to roads and buildings, liquefaction can lead to flash floods. How are earthquakes measured? Seismometers and seismographs sense and record movements in the Earth's surface, showing both the intensity and duration of earthquakes and other tremors. Seismologists then use this information to rate the earthquake on the Richter scale. The Richter scale was developed in 1935 by Charles Richter to show the amount of energy released during an earthquake. It was originally intended not as an absolute measure of individual quakes but as a way to compare the relative strengths of different earthquakes. Though Richter measurements are generally thought of as being between 0 and 10, there are theoretically no limits to the scale in either direction. Earthquakes measuring less than 4.0 magnitude occur in small areas and might not even be noticed, much less cause any serious damage. Earthquakes measuring 4.0–4.9 magnitude cover a larger area. They are felt, but damage is light. You start to see some damage with a 5.0-magnitude earthquake, starting with poorly constructed buildings. Higher up on the Richter scale, you see greater damage over a greater area. The largest recorded earthquake was the 9.5-magnitude Great Chilean Earthquake of 1960. This quake spawned numerous tsunamis that caused damage as far away as Hawaii, Japan, and the Philippines.

Article / Updated 01-05-2023

Nuclear fusion is essentially the opposite of nuclear fission. In fission, a heavy nucleus is split into smaller nuclei. With fusion, lighter nuclei are fused into a heavier nucleus. The fusion process is the reaction that powers the sun. On the sun, in a series of nuclear reactions, four isotopes of hydrogen-1 are fused into a helium-4 with the release of a tremendous amount of energy. Here on earth, two other isotopes of hydrogen are used: H-2, called deuterium, and H-3, called tritium. Deuterium is a minor isotope of hydrogen, but it’s still relatively abundant. Tritium doesn’t occur naturally, but it can easily be produced by bombarding deuterium with a neutron. The fusion reaction is shown in the following equation: Major breakthrough in 2022 In December 2022, scientists at the U.S. National Ignition Facility in Livermore, California, achieved a major breakthrough in nuclear fusion research: energy gain. Energy gain, also known in this context as ignition, means that they were able to create a fusion reaction that released more energy than they put in by their lab's gigantic high-powered lasers. The scientists said they proved nuclear fusion can work on Earth, but we are still many years from being able to use it in power plants. Yet, scientists are optimistic that controlled fusion power will be achieved. The rewards are great — an unlimited source of clean energy. Hydrogen bomb was first demonstration The first demonstration of nuclear fusion — the hydrogen bomb — was conducted by the military. A hydrogen bomb is approximately 1,000 times as powerful as an ordinary atomic bomb. The isotopes of hydrogen needed for the hydrogen bomb fusion reaction were placed around an ordinary fission bomb. The explosion of the fission bomb released the energy needed to provide the activation energy (the energy necessary to initiate, or start, the reaction) for the fusion process. Control issues with nuclear fusion The goal of scientists for the last 50 years has been the controlled release of energy from a fusion reaction. If the energy from a fusion reaction can be released slowly, it can be used to produce electricity. It will provide an unlimited supply of energy that has no wastes to deal with or contaminants to harm the atmosphere — simply non-polluting helium. But achieving this goal requires overcoming three problems: Temperature Time Containment Temperature The fusion process requires an extremely high activation energy. Heat is used to provide the energy, but it takes a lot of heat to start the reaction. Scientists estimate that the sample of hydrogen isotopes must be heated to approximately 40,000,000 K. K represents the Kelvin temperature scale. To get the Kelvin temperature, you add 273 to the Celsius temperature. Now 40,000,000 K is hotter than the sun! At this temperature, the electrons have long since left the building; all that’s left is a positively charged plasma, bare nuclei heated to a tremendously high temperature. Presently, scientists are trying to heat samples to this high temperature through two ways — magnetic fields and lasers. Neither one has yet achieved the necessary temperature. Time Time is the second problem scientists must overcome to achieve the controlled release of energy from fusion reactions. The charged nuclei must be held together close enough and long enough for the fusion reaction to start. Scientists estimate that the plasma needs to be held together at 40,000,000 K for about one second. Containment Containment is the major problem facing fusion research. At 40,000,000 K, everything is a gas. The best ceramics developed for the space program would vaporize when exposed to this temperature. Because the plasma has a charge, magnetic fields can be used to contain it — like a magnetic bottle. But if the bottle leaks, the reaction won’t take place. And scientists have yet to create a magnetic field that won’t allow the plasma to leak. Using lasers to zap the hydrogen isotope mixture and provide the necessary energy bypasses the containment problem. But scientists have not figured out how to protect the lasers themselves from the fusion reaction. Another Possible Use of Fusion An interesting by-product of fusion research is the fusion torch concept. With this idea, the fusion plasma, which must be cooled in order to produce steam, is used to incinerate garbage and solid wastes. Then the individual atoms and small molecules that are produced are collected and used as raw materials for industry. It seems like an ideal way to close the loop between waste and raw materials. Time will tell if this concept will eventually make it into practice.

Article / Updated 10-03-2022

A hurricane starts as a tropical storm, and a tropical storm reaches hurricane status when it develops and sustains winds moving at least 74 miles per hour. The storm itself is a cyclone with winds spiraling (at least in the Northern Hemisphere) in a counterclockwise direction. These cyclones, or rotating storms, develop over any ocean but are called hurricanes when they arise over the Atlantic or Northern Pacific. In other areas, they’re called typhoons or tropical cyclones. How does a hurricane form, and when is hurricane season? How a hurricane comes together isn’t precisely known, but it requires warm water (at least 79 degrees Fahrenheit) and winds that rise without much change in direction. Those factors combine to create winds that move in a spiral. As a storm grows, it may cover a diameter of more than 600 miles and gust at more than 200 miles per hour — nearly the top speed of a Formula One racecar. The faster the wind, the higher the storm rating and the greater the threat to everyone and everything in its path. Hurricanes are rated by intensity on a scale of 1 to 5, with a Category 1 storm showing the lowest intensity and winds of no more than 95 mph. Those in Category 5 top 156 mph. Hurricanes Maria (Dominica and Puerto Rico) and Irma (Florida) were Category 5 storms that made landfall in 2017. Windows and doors may get smashed from winds at the Category 2 level and above. Hurricane season runs from late May through November. What is the center of a hurricane, and other storm anatomy questions A hurricane is made up of several parts. If you could look closely at a cross-section of a hurricane, here’s what you’d see, starting from the center of the hurricane: Eye: An oasis of calm surrounded by hurtling winds and rain, the eye of a hurricane is about 20 to 40 miles of low winds, light rain, and even clear skies where the air is sinking rather than rising. Eye wall: Swirling around the eye, the eye wall is a band of thunderstorms where the rain and wind are strongest. Air is moving rapidly here in the direction of the eye of the storm, rising before it sinks again at the storm’s center. Feeder bands: Stretching sometimes hundreds of miles from the center of the storm, feeder bands of a hurricane are bands of heavy rain and wind sometimes include tornadoes. Outflow: Hurricanes stretch up much farther than out. Way up at a plane’s cruising altitude, the outflow of a hurricane is a huge swath of clouds swirling in the opposite direction of a hurricane. Hurricane prone areas If you live in Montana, you’re in the clear. Because hurricanes develop over warm ocean waters and lose strength as they travel over land, they do their worst near the country’s coasts. Here are the counties and areas that are prone and have been most often hit from 1960 to 2008, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce: Monroe County, Florida Lafourche Parish, Louisiana Carteret County, North Carolina Dare County, North Carolina Hyde County, North Carolina Jefferson Parish, Louisiana Palm Beach County, Florida Miami-Dade County, Florida Bernard Parish, Louisiana Cameron Parish, Louisiana What is hurricane storm surge? Hurricanes form over warm oceans, and when they reach land they push huge amounts of ocean water onto the shore with them. This is usually described as a “wall of water” but more specifically is an extremely fast rise in water above sea level. It technically is known as the storm surge. During Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the storm surge topped 25 feet and was a major factor in that storm’s high death toll. (At least 1,500 people died during Katrina.) A storm surge unleashes the incredible power of wind and water, sweeping up trees, cars, and buildings as it moves. Even standing in just six inches of these powerful waters would be difficult. A storm surge may reach land ahead of the storm, and when it does it may flood the roads you’d have used to evacuate. If you live near the shore, get out well in advance of the storm’s landfall. The storm surge may hit a day earlier, and it’s the deadliest element of a hurricane. The elements of a storm surge, like strength and angle of the storm, the shape of the land where it hits, and the shape of the continental shelf at the coastline, combine in unpredictable ways. In other words, no one can predict the intensity of a storm surge. Erring on the side of caution is warranted, especially when you consider that a cubic yard of water weighs almost a ton. The risk of damage from a storm surge is highest in the following states: Florida Louisiana Texas New Jersey New York You don’t have to live on a coast to get hit by the rains and winds a hurricane creates, and if you are in a high-risk area, you need to take steps — before hurricane season hits — to prepare yourself, your family, and your home for the potentially deadly damage. A hurricane is nature at its most destructive. These tropical cyclones don’t sneak up: When a hurricane is on its way, you’ll have several days’ warning before it lands, so keep an eye on the news or sign up for hurricane alerts. But sometimes several days isn’t enough. If you act much earlier, you won’t be fighting your neighbors for the last jugs of water on the store shelves. Create a hurricane preparedness checklist You want to prepare for a hurricane before hurricane season even starts, and a hurricane preparedness checklist can help you make sure you’ve got everything in order. Avoid the mad dash for supplies by prepping a hurricane disaster supply kit before you’re likely to need it. You want a large plastic tub or duffle bag so that everything in your kit is in one place and is ready to move. Pack it with the following: Water jugs: Traditional wisdom says bring a gallon per person per day for a minimum of three days. If you have room to carry it, err on the side of too much water. Food: Pack up enough nonperishable food for a few days — and a can opener. Think canned tuna and fruit, dry cereal, peanut butter, or granola bars, and focus on high-energy foods rather than salty snacks that will lead you to use too much of your water. Pack foods you like and some comfort foods because you’re going into a high-stress situation. No need to add to your angst. First-aid kit Flashlight and extra batteries Portable radio (you may not have Internet service) and extra batteries Cellphone charger Toilet paper Blankets or sleeping bags Glasses or contacts and contact solution A change of clothes for each family member Distractions like games, toys, and books Pet food Insect repellent Whistle (to signal for help) or flares Waterproof containers or plastic bags Other ways to prepare for a hurricane Preparation isn’t just what you do when a storm is imminent. Many of the moves that best protect you are the ones you make far ahead of time, like building a hurricane kit. You also want to take these steps: Have a plan. And make sure everyone in your household knows it. Choose a point person for everyone to contact and a meeting place if you get separated. Stay current on weather conditions. Keep a close eye on weather updates and emergency guidelines for your area. Minimize tree-related damage. Remove any dead wood from your trees; keep them trimmed so that they’re healthy and branches don’t reach your home. Maintain your car. Keep your car in good working order; gas up your tank when a storm nears. Protect your windows. Plan how you’ll protect your windows with permanent storm shutters or plywood. Long before a storm hits, make sure you have the right number and sizes of 5/8-inch-thick plywood sheets ready to be nailed in. Reinforce your exterior doors. They’re more likely to stay put against a hurricane if they’re secured by three hinges per door and a one-inch deadbolt. Prepare for rain run-off. Regularly clean gutters and drains so that they’re in the best shape to handle heavy rain. Get and maintain the right insurance. Purchase adequate homeowner’s insurance and become well-acquainted with its terms. Arm yourself with information Several organizations specialize in weather and emergency information. Check out these resources for further details about staying safe in a hurricane: The American Red Cross offers several guides for hurricane preparedness and safety and can tell you how to donate to relief efforts. FEMA keeps you alerted to storm progress, evacuation orders, and shelter locations during a hurricane. The Department of Homeland Security’s gov gives you hour-by-hour checklists of preparation and safety guidelines for hurricanes. You can track a storm through the National Hurricane Center Weather Underground tracks tropical storm and hurricane activity in tremendous detail and offers historical data as well as general preparedness information. For official communications related to hurricanes, please visit the websites of FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Hurricane Center for the latest information. Please note that this is general preparedness information, not specific to a particular storm.

Article / Updated 09-26-2022

When a hurricane strikes, making the right moves may be a life-or-death matter. More hurricanes happen during September than any other month, but hurricane season spans late May through November and can push relentless rain and wind up to 100 miles inland. Preparation is important. If you’re told to evacuate, do not hesitate. And if you’re caught in a storm, here are tips on how to stay safe during a hurricane: Stay inside. Don’t try to move to another location. You may not be in the ideal spot, but being on the roads when a storm is underway or imminent is too dangerous to risk. Floodwaters come up fast and move quickly. Water doesn’t need to be more than a foot deep to sweep your car away. Make sure all doors and windows are shut tight. Close your curtains or blinds to put a buffer between you and the glass, which may break from winds, branches, or flying debris. If you have time, bracing exterior doors with heavy furniture is a good idea. Don’t tape or crack your windows. If you haven’t braced your windows with plywood or permanent storm shutters, you’re out of luck at this point. The advice to tape windows is useless, and getting near them as winds pick up is incredibly dangerous. You may also have heard that you should crack your windows to relieve the pressure, and this, too, is bad advice. Letting in the wind and the rain does not help the situation at all. Keep your windows shut, and keep away from them. Stay in the lowest level of the building, and find an interior room. That may be a closet, bathroom, or stairwell. (Stay out of elevators during a storm.) Upper-level and exterior rooms are more vulnerable to damage from high winds; you’re safest where there are the most barriers between you and the storm. Bring pets inside. Avoid using candles. High winds and flame make the risk of fire much too great. Reach for a flashlight instead. Shield yourself with whatever you can. Especially if you don’t have an interior room, putting a table between yourself and a window or door may keep you safe from glass or debris. Cover yourself with a sofa cushion or mattress. You may be instructed to turn off your utilities at some point in anticipation of losing power, so it’s important to monitor for this direction. If you’re without power for either reason, avoid opening your refrigerator so that it keeps food cold as long as possible. Your home may flood during a hurricane. If it does, turn off your electricity and move to a higher floor. Floodwater may be contaminated with sewage. At some point, the wind and rain are likely to die down. Don’t be tempted to go outside; this may just be the eye of the storm and a lead-in to more high winds and pounding rain. For official communications related to hurricanes, please visit the websites of FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Hurricane Center for the latest information. Please note that this is general preparedness information, not specific to a particular storm.

Article / Updated 09-26-2022

Hurricanes are scary, and few people think clearly under that stress. Additionally, a lot of what you need to do to best weather a storm starts well ahead of hurricane season — which runs from late May through November. Start your hurricane safety plan ahead of a storm, while things are calm. The following steps put you and your family in the best position to protect your home and yourselves when a hurricane is on its way. Have an evacuation plan ready . Determine whether you’re in an evacuation zone and watch for updates; the course of a storm may change. Scout your yard and remove any furniture or other items that may get picked up by the wind and fly through windows or otherwise cause destruction. Put any important documents in a watertight container, along with medications and insurance cards. Charge your phone and any other devices you plan to use or carry with you. Turn your fridge to the coldest setting and put a thermometer in there. You’re likely to lose electricity, and a colder starting temp will keep your food cold longer. The thermometer will let you know whether your milk is a lost cause when the electricity’s back. Look into hurricane insurance If you live in an area commonly hit by hurricanes, standard homeowner’s insurance isn’t going to provide everything you need. Such a policy addresses structural damage and typically includes a higher deductible whenever that damage arises from a hurricane. And it may be inadequate to cover your costs for rebuilding and the living expenses you pay while you rebuild. Be sure to look closely at coverage for additional living expenses (ALE), which are essential after extensive storm damage that requires you to rent living space while damage is repaired. Find out what your policy covers and what it excludes. For example, a standard homeowner’s policy probably doesn't cover damage from sewer backups, which are common after major storms. You actually can buy a specific policy for this instance. Much of the damage from a hurricane comes from flooding, which also requires a separate policy. To get the full value from the policies you do buy, make sure you have a complete inventory of what you own and how much it’s worth. Doing so will make filing claims later on much smoother. Keep this documentation and your policies in a water-safe container that you can easily move with you when you evacuate. If you rent or own an apartment in a co-op, you need your own insurance policies, but you also want to be aware of the coverage your building has in place. Hurricane “watch” or “warning?” What makes a watch different from a warning? These terms actually have very specific meanings. A hurricane watch tells you that hurricane-force winds may appear within 48 hours. If you hear a hurricane warning, know that you’re likely to encounter hurricane-force winds within 36 hours. Warnings usually are issued for about 300 miles of coastline at a time. Although satellite technology makes predicting a storm’s approach easy, determining exactly where it will make landfall is still difficult. If you are told to evacuate ahead of a hurricane, never hesitate. Leave as soon as possible. But, if whatever reason, you are unable to get out and find yourself caught in the storm, here's how to survive. Address kids, pets, and special needs during a storm Maybe one family member needs to keep insulin at a just-right temperature, or you have a dog who requires eye drops every four hours. Situations like these require more detailed planning. Be sure to think through a week’s worth of needs for each family member. That may mean finding a physician and forwarding medical records to a medical center in the city where you’ll wait out the storm at your cousin’s house, or it may require even more careful planning. Just make sure that as soon as you know a storm is possible, you carefully consider each family member’s needs for several days. Include the pets, the kids, and the grandma you’ll pick up on the way out of town. For pets and kids, concerns aren’t all that different: Be ready to feed and distract, at a minimum. You need to prepare whatever food, drinks, and toys or special objects will keep the kids and pets as content as possible during the storm. Make sure that your pets have been microchipped or that they’re wearing ID tags. It’s all too easy to become separated during the chaos of a storm. If your kids attend school or daycare, make sure that you know the schools’ evacuation plans. Laminate an “in case of emergency” card for each child that includes your contact information and that of a friend or relative who lives elsewhere and may be able to provide a safe place to stay if a storm arises. As much as possible, keep up your routines, which will reassure members of your family who rely on you. Your kids especially look to you for cues about how to act, so do your best to keep calm. Prepare a storm evacuation plan Uprooting your life in response to an incoming storm presents a host of challenges, like where you’ll end up and who’s in charge of the pet-food supply. Make the transition as smooth as possible by having an evacuation plan in place. It should cover the following: Where you’ll meet if you become separated: Pick a place close to home and one farther away where you can meet up, and choose a family member to serve as point person. This person is who everyone checks in with if you can’t stay in one place. Where you’ll stay: Identify a couple of options ahead of time. Shelters will arise nearby (use FEMA.gov to find them), or maybe a hospitable friend or family member lives outside the evacuation zone. If you have pets, this part of the planning is trickier; most shelters accept only service dogs. How you’ll get there: If you have a car, make sure it’s in good working order and your gas tank is full. If not, plan farther ahead for public transportation (which will shut down as the storm nears) or for someone to drive you. Supplies: Get your disaster supplies kit ready well ahead of time. Grab a phone charger for the car, and if you’re traveling far, have snacks and distractions ready — especially if you’re traveling with kids. Maps: Downed trees or flooding may require you to change your route at the last moment, so be ready with low-tech navigation that cannot let you down no matter the circumstances. IDs and cash: Appoint a family member to make sure everyone has an ID and a little bit of cash. Don’t let this be the time you’re caught with your wallet in your gym bag. Updates: If you don’t want to keep tuned to the weather on the car radio, ask one person to track the storm until you’re safely out of range. Emergency instructions sometimes change as the storm progresses, and you need to have the latest information as you evacuate. Notice: Identify a close friend or family member to check in with when you leave and when you have arrived at shelter outside the evacuation zone. Resolve: Staying in your home is tempting, even when you’ve been ordered to evacuate. Resolve, as a household, to follow those orders and accept no alternatives. Hurricanes are deadly. Agreeing ahead of time that you’ll evacuate can save valuable time debating the issue later. If you’re on the coast, get out well in advance of the storm surge When a hurricane pushes ocean water ashore, that push is called a storm surge and is responsible for more deaths and damage than any other part of the storm. Depending on how and where the storm hits, a storm surge — measured in how far above sea level the water rises — can bring almost 30 feet of water to land. This water moves at high speed, bringing tremendous destructive power to everything in its path. These surges are unpredictable, and they often arrive before the storms themselves. When they hit, water levels can rise ten feet in just minutes. Help cannot make it to you under these circumstances, and you are unlikely to be able to drive away from a storm surge. If you’re near a coast and anywhere close to a hurricane’s path, you must evacuate. If you see it coming, it’s too late. The surge can easily go from an inch to several feet before you even make it out of your driveway. Keep an axe in your attic so that if for some reason you are trapped in your home during a surge, you have an escape route through the roof. Travel to hurricane prone areas Because hurricanes happen near coastlines, a lot of popular vacation spots are susceptible. When you’re thinking about planning a vacation, take a look at the storm season before you book tickets and hotel rooms. Travel insurance that covers natural disasters can help, and you should check with hotels and airlines about policies regarding refunds or rescheduling in the event of a storm. For official communications related to hurricanes, please visit the websites of FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Hurricane Center for the latest information. Please note that this is general preparedness information, not specific to a particular storm.

Article / Updated 08-11-2022

Environmental science is all about finding ways to live more sustainably, which means using resources today in a way that maintains their supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t mean living without luxuries but rather being aware of your resource consumption and reducing unnecessary waste. Reduce household energy use. Energy conservation is itself a source of energy. Here are several simple ways to reduce your household energy use: Turn off appliances and lights that you’re not using. Install energy-efficient appliances. Use a programmable thermostat that lowers or raises the temperature when you’re not home. Set your thermostat lower than usual in the winter and bundle up. Open windows to allow a breeze instead of turning on the air conditioning. Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer. Use an electric teakettle rather than a stovetop kettle to boil water. Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs). Eat locally. A powerful way to live more sustainably is to eat locally. The convenience of supermarkets has changed how people think about food. You can stroll through aisles stocked with fruits, vegetables, and other products from all over the world any time of year. But these products consume huge amounts of fossil fuel energy to get from those global locations to your corner supermarket. Dispose with disposables. Previous generations didn’t dream of single-use razors, forks, cups, bags, and food storage containers, but these days, you can find a plastic version of almost any object and then throw that object away after you use it. Many of the environmental health issues today stem from toxins released into the environment by trash. Even trash that’s properly disposed of, such as that in a landfill, requires careful monitoring to ensure that dangerous chemicals don’t enter the surrounding environment. When you make a purchase, consider the item’s life expectancy: How long can the item be used? Will it have more than one use? When you’re done with it, will it end up in the trash? Start investing in reusable products for the items you most often throw away. Plant seeds. Try growing your own food. Simply plant a few seeds in a corner of your yard or in a container on your porch or windowsill. You don’t need acres; a few square feet on a patio, along the driveway, or in a window box can provide enough space to grow edible herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Recycle. Recycle as much as possible! If your neighborhood or apartment complex doesn’t offer recycling pickup, either find a drop-off location or request the curbside service. Buying products labeled post-consumer lets companies know that recycling is the way to go! For other items, such as CFLs, batteries, cellphones, and electronics, find an appropriate recycler. Be sure to ask electronics recyclers where these materials go for recycling and avoid companies that ship electronic waste overseas for unregulated “recycling” and salvage operations. Goodwill Industries International is one place that accepts electronics for responsible recycling. Resell and donate items. Items that you no longer need can get an extended life through resale and donation. By extending the life of any product, you help reduce dependence on disposable or cheaply made single-use products that end up in landfills. Try reselling clothing and children’s things through a secondhand or consignment retailer or consider donating them to a nonprofit resale organization (such as Goodwill) or charity organization (such as the Salvation Army or American Cancer Society) that will redistribute them to those in need. Drink from the tap. Dependence on bottled water has added more than a million tons of plastic to the waste stream every year. One reason people rely on bottled water is because they believe it’s safer and better tasting than tap water. But most municipal water supplies in the U.S. provide safe, clean, fresh water (and many bottled waters are just bottled from city water supplies anyway). If you don’t like the flavor of your tap water, consider the one-time investment in a filtration system. If you like the convenience of bottled water, purchase refillable bottles and keep one in your fridge, one in your car, and one at the office. Encourage your employer to install filters and offer glasses or reusable bottles at work, too. Save water. An easy way to live more sustainably is to conserve household water use. Consider installing water-efficient toilets or dual-flush toilets that let you choose whether to use a full flush (for solid waste) or half-flush (for liquid waste). Newer clothes washers can automatically sense the smallest level of water needed for each load. Smaller changes, such as switching to water-saving shower heads and adding aerators to your sink faucets, are also effective ways to significantly reduce household water use. To conserve water outdoors, use landscaping adapted to your local environment. When buying plants, look for drought-tolerant species and varieties and be sure to plant them in proper soil and sun conditions to reduce their need for excess watering. Set up sprinkler systems so they don’t water the sidewalk, the driveway, and other paved, impermeable surfaces. Rely less on your car. Using fossil fuels to support one person in each car on the road is clearly no longer sustainable. Investigate mass transit options in your town or city, such as a bus system, a light rail train system, or carpool and vanpool services for commuters. When traveling close to home, walk or ride your bike. Purchase fair-trade products. When you purchase items that are imported from all over the world — particularly coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, chocolate, and fruit — look for the fair-trade certification. This designation tells you that these items were grown using sustainable methods of agriculture and that local people are receiving fair prices for the goods they produce. Items that don’t have the fair-trade certification may have been produced unsustainably and may be the product of exploitative labor practices that don’t benefit the local people.