{"appState":{"pageLoadApiCallsStatus":true},"categoryState":{"relatedCategories":{"headers":{"timestamp":"2022-05-17T12:31:17+00:00"},"categoryId":33763,"data":{"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","image":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"parentCategory":{"categoryId":33756,"title":"Science","slug":"science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"}},"childCategories":[],"description":"Learn to live sustainably, work toward a career in environmental science, and discover some pretty awesome facts about this planet of ours.","relatedArticles":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles?category=33763&offset=0&size=5"}},"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"relatedCategoriesLoadedStatus":"success"},"listState":{"list":{"count":10,"total":91,"items":[{"headers":{"creationTime":"2022-04-19T14:16:54+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-22T13:59:44+00:00","timestamp":"2022-04-22T18:01:07+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Find New Ways to Go Green this Earth Day","strippedTitle":"find new ways to go green this earth day","slug":"this-earth-day-find-new-ways-to-go-green","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Celebrate Earth Day with Dummies by connecting with nature, learning about the natural environment, or picking up a new eco-friendly habit.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Celebrate everything that is beautiful about our planet by reconnecting with nature, learning more about the natural environment, or picking up a new eco-friendly habit or two.\r\n\r\nApril 22 marks the 52nd anniversary of Earth Day — a world-wide celebration commemorating everything that makes our blue-marble planet unique and beautiful, and all the things we can do to protect it.\r\n\r\nStarting all the way back during the environmental movement of the 1970s, Earth Day has grown to become a powerful motivator for individuals and companies alike to become more environmentally aware and responsible. From local volunteer cleanups to nation-wide conservation initiatives, this year is no different, with numerous events happening at both the grassroots and state levels.\r\n\r\nWant to join in on the celebration? Find Earth Day events in your area, by visiting <a href=\"https://www.earthday.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https://www.earthday.org/</a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292124\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292124 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog-1.jpg\" alt=\"Earth Globe Painting\" width=\"630\" height=\"355\" /> © Elena Mozhvilo / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >The First Earth Day</h2>\r\nDid you know... In response to public outcry to the Santa Barbara Oil Spill of 1969, U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson organized a nationwide \"teach-in\" about environmental issues to take place on April 22, 1970. More than 2,000 colleges and universities, 10,000 public schools, and 20 million citizens participated.\r\n\r\nAside from volunteering or donating to an eco-friendly cause, there are plenty of other ways to celebrate Earth Day — here are just a few.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292127\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292127 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog1.jpg\" alt=\"Meat-Free Sausages\" width=\"630\" height=\"473\" /> Vegan alternatives to meat-based products are a great first step towards a more plant-based diet.<br />©LikeMeat / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Plant a healthy diet</h2>\r\nYou’ve probably already heard about the massive environmental impact that animal farming has on the planet. It is second only to fossil fuels in terms of contributing to human-made greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change. And, while the jump from a traditional omnivorous diet to a full-blown vegan one is not something most people can accomplish overnight, cutting down on red meat is a great first step.\r\n\r\nSomething as simple as committing to meat-free Mondays can have a significant influence on your health and the environment. Get started by taking a crack at one or two of our favorite plant-based recipes found in <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/body-mind-spirit/physical-health-well-being/diet-nutrition/plant-based-diet/plant-based-diet-cookbook-for-dummies-289784\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Plant-Based Diet Cookbook For Dummies</a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292128\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292128 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"354\" /> Gardening is an excellent way to teach kids environmental responsibility.<br />© Surya Prakash / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Channel your inner green thumb</h2>\r\nYou don’t need to become an expert horticulturist to help save our planet. Simply buying local or better yet, growing some of your own food can help reduce your carbon footprint — not to mention, teach you valuable transferable skills like diligence and patience. Plus, there’s just something so satisfying about working with your hands, especially if you’re used to working in front of a screen all day.\r\n\r\nYou can start by growing some common herbs like rosemary or thyme. They are fairly resilient and, depending on where you live, can even be grown indoors. If you lack the space to garden, look for farmers markets in your area or, better yet, join a community garden, these gardens are becoming increasingly popular, even in the most urban of cities.\r\n\r\nDon't worry if you have no previous gardening knowledge — beginner-friendly resources, such as <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/home-auto-hobbies/garden-green-living/gardening/general-gardening/gardening-basics-for-dummies-3rd-edition-282222\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Gardening Basics For Dummies</a>, will help you get there.\r\n\r\nYou can also find a farmers market near you using the <a href=\"https://www.ams.usda.gov/local-food-directories/farmersmarkets\">USDA National Farmers Market Directory</a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292129\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292129 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog3.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"504\" /> © Viki Mohamad / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Stay informed</h2>\r\nIt’s no secret that our planet is in grave danger as a result of climate change. But, contrary to what you may feel after reading all the increasingly worrisome headlines, you must remember — there’s still hope. And, while the biggest contributors of climate change, like animal farming and fossil fuel burning, may seem so far removed from your daily life, you’d be surprised how much of a difference you as an individual can make.\r\n\r\nStaying informed is perhaps the easiest way to help environmental causes. As an informed citizen, you have the power to choose more wisely what products to buy, what companies and practices to support, and even who you vote for in the next election.\r\n\r\nDon't know where to start? Check out <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/science/environmental-science/climate-change-for-dummies-290945\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Climate Change For Dummies</a> to help you navigate this complex topic.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292130\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292130 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog4.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"361\" /> © Noah Buscher / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >More ways to greenify your life</h2>\r\nThere’s always something more we can do to reduce our environmental impact on the planet, but that should not discourage us from taking action — after all, every little bit counts. One small change in your daily routine today will lead you to more and more lasting changes in the future.\r\n\r\nIf you’re ready to explore even more ways to go green, check out <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/home-auto-hobbies/garden-green-living/sustainability/general-sustainability/green-living-for-dummies-281576\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Green Living For Dummies</a> for a more comprehensive guide to sustainable living.\r\n\r\nFrom the team at Dummies, we wish all our fellow earthlings a happy and green Earth Day.","description":"Celebrate everything that is beautiful about our planet by reconnecting with nature, learning more about the natural environment, or picking up a new eco-friendly habit or two.\r\n\r\nApril 22 marks the 52nd anniversary of Earth Day — a world-wide celebration commemorating everything that makes our blue-marble planet unique and beautiful, and all the things we can do to protect it.\r\n\r\nStarting all the way back during the environmental movement of the 1970s, Earth Day has grown to become a powerful motivator for individuals and companies alike to become more environmentally aware and responsible. From local volunteer cleanups to nation-wide conservation initiatives, this year is no different, with numerous events happening at both the grassroots and state levels.\r\n\r\nWant to join in on the celebration? Find Earth Day events in your area, by visiting <a href=\"https://www.earthday.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https://www.earthday.org/</a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292124\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292124 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog-1.jpg\" alt=\"Earth Globe Painting\" width=\"630\" height=\"355\" /> © Elena Mozhvilo / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >The First Earth Day</h2>\r\nDid you know... In response to public outcry to the Santa Barbara Oil Spill of 1969, U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson organized a nationwide \"teach-in\" about environmental issues to take place on April 22, 1970. More than 2,000 colleges and universities, 10,000 public schools, and 20 million citizens participated.\r\n\r\nAside from volunteering or donating to an eco-friendly cause, there are plenty of other ways to celebrate Earth Day — here are just a few.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292127\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292127 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog1.jpg\" alt=\"Meat-Free Sausages\" width=\"630\" height=\"473\" /> Vegan alternatives to meat-based products are a great first step towards a more plant-based diet.<br />©LikeMeat / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Plant a healthy diet</h2>\r\nYou’ve probably already heard about the massive environmental impact that animal farming has on the planet. It is second only to fossil fuels in terms of contributing to human-made greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change. And, while the jump from a traditional omnivorous diet to a full-blown vegan one is not something most people can accomplish overnight, cutting down on red meat is a great first step.\r\n\r\nSomething as simple as committing to meat-free Mondays can have a significant influence on your health and the environment. Get started by taking a crack at one or two of our favorite plant-based recipes found in <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/body-mind-spirit/physical-health-well-being/diet-nutrition/plant-based-diet/plant-based-diet-cookbook-for-dummies-289784\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Plant-Based Diet Cookbook For Dummies</a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292128\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292128 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"354\" /> Gardening is an excellent way to teach kids environmental responsibility.<br />© Surya Prakash / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Channel your inner green thumb</h2>\r\nYou don’t need to become an expert horticulturist to help save our planet. Simply buying local or better yet, growing some of your own food can help reduce your carbon footprint — not to mention, teach you valuable transferable skills like diligence and patience. Plus, there’s just something so satisfying about working with your hands, especially if you’re used to working in front of a screen all day.\r\n\r\nYou can start by growing some common herbs like rosemary or thyme. They are fairly resilient and, depending on where you live, can even be grown indoors. If you lack the space to garden, look for farmers markets in your area or, better yet, join a community garden, these gardens are becoming increasingly popular, even in the most urban of cities.\r\n\r\nDon't worry if you have no previous gardening knowledge — beginner-friendly resources, such as <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/home-auto-hobbies/garden-green-living/gardening/general-gardening/gardening-basics-for-dummies-3rd-edition-282222\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Gardening Basics For Dummies</a>, will help you get there.\r\n\r\nYou can also find a farmers market near you using the <a href=\"https://www.ams.usda.gov/local-food-directories/farmersmarkets\">USDA National Farmers Market Directory</a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292129\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292129 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog3.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"504\" /> © Viki Mohamad / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Stay informed</h2>\r\nIt’s no secret that our planet is in grave danger as a result of climate change. But, contrary to what you may feel after reading all the increasingly worrisome headlines, you must remember — there’s still hope. And, while the biggest contributors of climate change, like animal farming and fossil fuel burning, may seem so far removed from your daily life, you’d be surprised how much of a difference you as an individual can make.\r\n\r\nStaying informed is perhaps the easiest way to help environmental causes. As an informed citizen, you have the power to choose more wisely what products to buy, what companies and practices to support, and even who you vote for in the next election.\r\n\r\nDon't know where to start? Check out <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/academics-the-arts/science/environmental-science/climate-change-for-dummies-290945\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Climate Change For Dummies</a> to help you navigate this complex topic.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292130\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"wp-image-292130 size-full\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/earthdayblog4.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"361\" /> © Noah Buscher / Unsplash.com[/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >More ways to greenify your life</h2>\r\nThere’s always something more we can do to reduce our environmental impact on the planet, but that should not discourage us from taking action — after all, every little bit counts. One small change in your daily routine today will lead you to more and more lasting changes in the future.\r\n\r\nIf you’re ready to explore even more ways to go green, check out <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/book/home-auto-hobbies/garden-green-living/sustainability/general-sustainability/green-living-for-dummies-281576\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Green Living For Dummies</a> for a more comprehensive guide to sustainable living.\r\n\r\nFrom the team at Dummies, we wish all our fellow earthlings a happy and green Earth Day.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":8947,"name":"The Experts at Dummies","slug":"the-experts-at-dummies","description":"The Experts at Dummies are smart, friendly people who make learning easy by taking a not-so-serious approach to serious stuff.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8947"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"The First Earth Day","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Plant a healthy diet","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Channel your inner green thumb","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"Stay informed","target":"#tab4"},{"label":"More ways to greenify your life","target":"#tab5"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":291362,"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/291362"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":291362,"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/291362"}},{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":290945,"slug":"climate-change-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119703105","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119703107-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119703105-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Climate Change For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"\n <p><b data-author-id=\"9735\">Elizabeth May</b>, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. <b data-author-id=\"34718\">John Kidder</b> is an environmental activist and writer. He is a former leader of Canada's Green Party and in 2019 was a Federal Council candidate for the party.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9735,"name":"Elizabeth May","slug":"elizabeth-may","description":"Elizabeth May, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9735"}},{"authorId":34718,"name":"John Kidder","slug":"john-kidder","description":"John Kidder is an environmental activist and writer. He is a former leader of Canada's Green Party and in 2019 was a Federal Council candidate for the party.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34718"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119703105&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6262ed6406206\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119703105&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6262ed64074f0\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Six months","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-18T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":292097},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T22:50:30+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-18T13:42:07+00:00","timestamp":"2022-04-18T18:01:09+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Tornadoes: Really Twisted Winds","strippedTitle":"tornadoes: really twisted winds","slug":"tornadoes-really-twisted-winds","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn the interesting and even life-saving facts about one of nature's most dangerous phenomena, tornadoes. Know what to do in a warning.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Tornadoes are nature's most violent storms. Nothing the atmosphere dishes out is more destructive. They can sweep up anything that moves. They lift buildings from their foundations. They make a swirling cloud of violently flying debris. They are very dangerous to all living things, not only because of the sheer power of their winds, but the missiles of debris they create.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292069\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292069\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/Tornado.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"419\" /> ©Minerva Studio / Adobe Stock[/caption]\r\n\r\nWind measuring instruments are destroyed by tornadoes, although according to reliable estimates, their winds can exceed 250 miles per hour. Flying at those speeds, pieces of straw can penetrate wood. According to most scientists, the top wind speeds in the strongest tornadoes are about 280 miles per hour.\r\n\r\nIn an average year, 1,200 tornadoes are reported in the United States, far more than any other place in the world.\r\n\r\nOn average, tornadoes cause 80 deaths in the U.S. every year and 1,500 injuries, although averages don't mean very much when it comes to these storms. In 1998, for example, 130 people died in tornadoes in the U.S., including 42 who were killed in an outbreak in central Florida and 34 who died in a single tornado in Birmingham, Alabama.\r\n\r\nMost human casualties are people in mobile homes and vehicles. The deadliest single tornado struck on March 18, 1925. In three and a half hours, it traveled 219 miles through Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people.\r\n\r\nMost tornadoes, nearly 90 percent, travel from the southwest to the northeast, although some follow quick-changing zigzag paths. Weak tornadoes, or decaying tornadoes, often have a thin ropelike appearance. The most violent tornadoes have a broad, dark, funnel-shape that extends from a dark wall cloud of a large thunderstorm.\r\n\r\nThere have been reports of some tornadoes that practically stand still, hovering over a single field.\r\n\r\nOthers crawl along at 5 miles per hour. But the average tornado travels 35 miles per hour, and some have been clocked at more than 70 miles per hour. A tornado in 1917 traveled a record 293 miles. The average width of a tornado's path is about 140 yards, although some have been reported to be more than a mile wide.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Most tornadoes occur between 3 p.m. and 9 p.m., although they have been known to strike at all hours of the day or night. They usually last only about 15 minutes, although, some have been known to stay on the ground for hours.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Tornado Alley</h2>\r\nThe size of the place known as Tornado Alley expands through spring and summer as heating from the sun grows warmer and the flow of warm moisture from the Gulf of Mexico spreads farther north. An area that includes central Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas is the hard core of the season, but before it is over, as Figure 1 illustrates, Tornado Alley extends north to Nebraska and Iowa.\r\n<div class=\"figure\"><img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/0-7645-5243-0_0914.jpg\" border=\"0\" /></div>\r\n<span class=\"caption\"><b>Figure 1:</b> Tornado Alley.</span>\r\n\r\nIt shrinks and swells over time, but there is only one Tornado Alley. Nowhere else in the world sees weather conditions in a combination that is so perfect for these storms. Here's what makes the storms of Tornado Alley so bad:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Beginning in spring and continuing through summer, low-level winds from the south and southeast bring a plentiful supply of warm tropical moisture up from the Gulf of Mexico into the Great Plains.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>From down off of the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains or from out of the deserts of northern Mexico come other flows of very dry air that travel about 3,000 feet above the ground.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>From 10,000 feet, the prevailing westerly winds, sometimes accompanied by a powerful jet stream, race overhead, carrying cool air from the Pacific Ocean.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nSometimes, the winds form a convective cap lid of warm air over the Plains that the rising air is eventually able to break through and explode upward into the sky. These are the ingredients for the most severe thunderstorms and most powerful twisters — sharp differences in temperatures at different levels, big contrasts in dryness and moisture, and layers of powerful winds that are blowing from different directions at different speeds.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Forecasting</h2>\r\nWeather forecasters in Tornado Alley have a pretty good idea of the menu of conditions that are necessary to make severe thunderstorms, and they're pretty good at being able to forecast that severe thunderstorms are on the way. They can say that large hailstones and strong winds are likely, and a tornado is a possibility during the next several hours or the next day or two.\r\n\r\nBut they can't forecast a tornado. The question of which of the conditions on the menu for severe thunderstorms actually causes tornadoes to form in these storms remains one of the most difficult mysteries of weather science. A severe thunderstorm that causes a tornado can look exactly like a severe thunderstorm that does not cause a tornado. Weather researchers have been working on the problem for years, chasing tornadoes all over the countryside, and still it is one of those things that is not well understood.\r\n\r\nThe presence in the area of supercell thunderstorms really puts pressure on forecasters in local weather service field offices. The national Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma, is on the phone giving advice, but the buck stops in the local office. The local forecasters know that a lethal tornado could come spinning down out of the dark cloud at any moment, but they can't be sure until they see it show up on a Doppler radar screen or a funnel is actually observed.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" ><strong>Warning the public</strong></h2>\r\nBillions of dollars have been spent in the last several years on research and computer modeling, radars and satellite technologies, and high-speed communications. Progress has been made. On average, when tornado warnings were issued in 1994, communities had six minutes to react. By 1998, the average lead time for warnings had stretched to 12 minutes.\r\n\r\nTelevision meteorologists and other media outlets play vital roles in such weather emergencies, continuously broadcasting the locations and predicted paths of tornadoes. Many lives are being saved by the increased public awareness and the lengthening time of advance warning that is available. In fact, the longer lead-time has reached the point where people are rethinking the idea of public shelters for tornadoes. As minutes are added to advance warnings, now it may be possible for people in harm's way to rush to a shelter before a tornado hits.\r\n\r\nMore than 15,000 severe storm and tornado watches and warnings are issued by the National Weather Service every year. Most of the time, they are accurate. Sometimes, they are missed. Occasionally there are false alarms. The successes are taken for granted and often overlooked in the details of a tornado disaster. The failures and the false alarms seem to be remembered forever. Perfectly reasonable people who will forgive you for missing the rain on their picnic now have a different attitude. When it comes to tornadoes, they want perfection.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Lives and limbs</h2>\r\nWhat are the odds of a tornado crossing your path? Even in Tornado Alley, the odds are against such an unhappy occasion. When it happens, of course, it's a disaster — but still, the odds are high against it.\r\n\r\nPeople think about tornadoes in tornado country the way people in the Southeast think about hurricanes and people in California think about earthquakes. It's part of the background of daily life that you really don't give very much thought to, because chances are, it's not going to happen.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">The five-dollar word for this is complacency — a self-satisfied unawareness of danger — and somebody is always getting on their high horse about it. The truth is, day in and day out, most people have other things to worry about that just seem more real. And it's just human nature to be optimistic, and to think things are going to turn out for the best. But it leaves you open for some terrible surprises once in a while, which is kind of sad, when you think about it. Government people in the disaster business and American Red Cross relief workers who deal with victims of these storms see this sense of surprise on people's faces all the time.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >A tornado watch or a warning?</h2>\r\nDon't confuse a <em>watch</em> with a <em>warning</em>. There is a big difference. Here is what they are about:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Tornado watch:</b> When National Weather Service forecasters issue a tornado watch, they are making a forecast that tornadoes are possible in your area. It's time to remain alert to signs of approaching storms and to make sure that you are prepared for an emergency.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Tornado warning:</b> This is an emergency message. A tornado has been sighted in your area, or weather radar indicates one is present. Now is the time to get to safety, to put your emergency plan into action.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >Tornado dos — and don'ts!</h2>\r\nThe National Weather Service and the American Red Cross have put together these basic tips about tornado safety:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Seek shelter immediately, preferably underground in a basement or in an interior room on the lowest floor, such as a closet or bathroom.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Stay away from windows.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Get out of your car or your mobile home and seek shelter in a sturdy structure. In the open, lie flat in a ditch or depression.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Protect your head from flying debris.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Do not try to outrun a tornado in your car.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Do not seek shelter under a bridge over overpass. The idea that these are safe shelters is just plain wrong.</li>\r\n</ul>","description":"Tornadoes are nature's most violent storms. Nothing the atmosphere dishes out is more destructive. They can sweep up anything that moves. They lift buildings from their foundations. They make a swirling cloud of violently flying debris. They are very dangerous to all living things, not only because of the sheer power of their winds, but the missiles of debris they create.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_292069\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"630\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-292069\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/Tornado.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"630\" height=\"419\" /> ©Minerva Studio / Adobe Stock[/caption]\r\n\r\nWind measuring instruments are destroyed by tornadoes, although according to reliable estimates, their winds can exceed 250 miles per hour. Flying at those speeds, pieces of straw can penetrate wood. According to most scientists, the top wind speeds in the strongest tornadoes are about 280 miles per hour.\r\n\r\nIn an average year, 1,200 tornadoes are reported in the United States, far more than any other place in the world.\r\n\r\nOn average, tornadoes cause 80 deaths in the U.S. every year and 1,500 injuries, although averages don't mean very much when it comes to these storms. In 1998, for example, 130 people died in tornadoes in the U.S., including 42 who were killed in an outbreak in central Florida and 34 who died in a single tornado in Birmingham, Alabama.\r\n\r\nMost human casualties are people in mobile homes and vehicles. The deadliest single tornado struck on March 18, 1925. In three and a half hours, it traveled 219 miles through Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people.\r\n\r\nMost tornadoes, nearly 90 percent, travel from the southwest to the northeast, although some follow quick-changing zigzag paths. Weak tornadoes, or decaying tornadoes, often have a thin ropelike appearance. The most violent tornadoes have a broad, dark, funnel-shape that extends from a dark wall cloud of a large thunderstorm.\r\n\r\nThere have been reports of some tornadoes that practically stand still, hovering over a single field.\r\n\r\nOthers crawl along at 5 miles per hour. But the average tornado travels 35 miles per hour, and some have been clocked at more than 70 miles per hour. A tornado in 1917 traveled a record 293 miles. The average width of a tornado's path is about 140 yards, although some have been reported to be more than a mile wide.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Most tornadoes occur between 3 p.m. and 9 p.m., although they have been known to strike at all hours of the day or night. They usually last only about 15 minutes, although, some have been known to stay on the ground for hours.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Tornado Alley</h2>\r\nThe size of the place known as Tornado Alley expands through spring and summer as heating from the sun grows warmer and the flow of warm moisture from the Gulf of Mexico spreads farther north. An area that includes central Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas is the hard core of the season, but before it is over, as Figure 1 illustrates, Tornado Alley extends north to Nebraska and Iowa.\r\n<div class=\"figure\"><img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/0-7645-5243-0_0914.jpg\" border=\"0\" /></div>\r\n<span class=\"caption\"><b>Figure 1:</b> Tornado Alley.</span>\r\n\r\nIt shrinks and swells over time, but there is only one Tornado Alley. Nowhere else in the world sees weather conditions in a combination that is so perfect for these storms. Here's what makes the storms of Tornado Alley so bad:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Beginning in spring and continuing through summer, low-level winds from the south and southeast bring a plentiful supply of warm tropical moisture up from the Gulf of Mexico into the Great Plains.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>From down off of the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains or from out of the deserts of northern Mexico come other flows of very dry air that travel about 3,000 feet above the ground.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>From 10,000 feet, the prevailing westerly winds, sometimes accompanied by a powerful jet stream, race overhead, carrying cool air from the Pacific Ocean.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nSometimes, the winds form a convective cap lid of warm air over the Plains that the rising air is eventually able to break through and explode upward into the sky. These are the ingredients for the most severe thunderstorms and most powerful twisters — sharp differences in temperatures at different levels, big contrasts in dryness and moisture, and layers of powerful winds that are blowing from different directions at different speeds.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Forecasting</h2>\r\nWeather forecasters in Tornado Alley have a pretty good idea of the menu of conditions that are necessary to make severe thunderstorms, and they're pretty good at being able to forecast that severe thunderstorms are on the way. They can say that large hailstones and strong winds are likely, and a tornado is a possibility during the next several hours or the next day or two.\r\n\r\nBut they can't forecast a tornado. The question of which of the conditions on the menu for severe thunderstorms actually causes tornadoes to form in these storms remains one of the most difficult mysteries of weather science. A severe thunderstorm that causes a tornado can look exactly like a severe thunderstorm that does not cause a tornado. Weather researchers have been working on the problem for years, chasing tornadoes all over the countryside, and still it is one of those things that is not well understood.\r\n\r\nThe presence in the area of supercell thunderstorms really puts pressure on forecasters in local weather service field offices. The national Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma, is on the phone giving advice, but the buck stops in the local office. The local forecasters know that a lethal tornado could come spinning down out of the dark cloud at any moment, but they can't be sure until they see it show up on a Doppler radar screen or a funnel is actually observed.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" ><strong>Warning the public</strong></h2>\r\nBillions of dollars have been spent in the last several years on research and computer modeling, radars and satellite technologies, and high-speed communications. Progress has been made. On average, when tornado warnings were issued in 1994, communities had six minutes to react. By 1998, the average lead time for warnings had stretched to 12 minutes.\r\n\r\nTelevision meteorologists and other media outlets play vital roles in such weather emergencies, continuously broadcasting the locations and predicted paths of tornadoes. Many lives are being saved by the increased public awareness and the lengthening time of advance warning that is available. In fact, the longer lead-time has reached the point where people are rethinking the idea of public shelters for tornadoes. As minutes are added to advance warnings, now it may be possible for people in harm's way to rush to a shelter before a tornado hits.\r\n\r\nMore than 15,000 severe storm and tornado watches and warnings are issued by the National Weather Service every year. Most of the time, they are accurate. Sometimes, they are missed. Occasionally there are false alarms. The successes are taken for granted and often overlooked in the details of a tornado disaster. The failures and the false alarms seem to be remembered forever. Perfectly reasonable people who will forgive you for missing the rain on their picnic now have a different attitude. When it comes to tornadoes, they want perfection.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Lives and limbs</h2>\r\nWhat are the odds of a tornado crossing your path? Even in Tornado Alley, the odds are against such an unhappy occasion. When it happens, of course, it's a disaster — but still, the odds are high against it.\r\n\r\nPeople think about tornadoes in tornado country the way people in the Southeast think about hurricanes and people in California think about earthquakes. It's part of the background of daily life that you really don't give very much thought to, because chances are, it's not going to happen.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">The five-dollar word for this is complacency — a self-satisfied unawareness of danger — and somebody is always getting on their high horse about it. The truth is, day in and day out, most people have other things to worry about that just seem more real. And it's just human nature to be optimistic, and to think things are going to turn out for the best. But it leaves you open for some terrible surprises once in a while, which is kind of sad, when you think about it. Government people in the disaster business and American Red Cross relief workers who deal with victims of these storms see this sense of surprise on people's faces all the time.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" >A tornado watch or a warning?</h2>\r\nDon't confuse a <em>watch</em> with a <em>warning</em>. There is a big difference. Here is what they are about:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Tornado watch:</b> When National Weather Service forecasters issue a tornado watch, they are making a forecast that tornadoes are possible in your area. It's time to remain alert to signs of approaching storms and to make sure that you are prepared for an emergency.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Tornado warning:</b> This is an emergency message. A tornado has been sighted in your area, or weather radar indicates one is present. Now is the time to get to safety, to put your emergency plan into action.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab6\" >Tornado dos — and don'ts!</h2>\r\nThe National Weather Service and the American Red Cross have put together these basic tips about tornado safety:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Seek shelter immediately, preferably underground in a basement or in an interior room on the lowest floor, such as a closet or bathroom.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Stay away from windows.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Get out of your car or your mobile home and seek shelter in a sturdy structure. In the open, lie flat in a ditch or depression.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Protect your head from flying debris.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Do not try to outrun a tornado in your car.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Do not seek shelter under a bridge over overpass. The idea that these are safe shelters is just plain wrong.</li>\r\n</ul>","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Tornado Alley","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Forecasting","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Warning the public","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"Lives and limbs","target":"#tab4"},{"label":"A tornado watch or a warning?","target":"#tab5"},{"label":"Tornado dos — and don'ts!","target":"#tab6"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":291362,"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/291362"}},{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-625da76595430\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-625da76595d0a\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-14T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":200531},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2021-02-12T23:20:28+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-12T20:18:57+00:00","timestamp":"2022-04-13T00:01:05+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Oceans For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"oceans for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"oceans-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Explore the ocean world—physical characteristics, ecosystems and inhabitants, influence on climate, and sustainable resources.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"The ocean is big — really, really big — both as a body of water and as a topic. It encompasses physical characteristics, its ecosystems and inhabitants, its influence on climate and weather, the sustainable use of its resources, and much more. This Cheat Sheet touches on a few key topics.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_277582\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-277582\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-reef.jpg\" alt=\"coral reef scene\" width=\"556\" height=\"434\" /> © Jag_cz / Shutterstock.com[/caption]","description":"The ocean is big — really, really big — both as a body of water and as a topic. It encompasses physical characteristics, its ecosystems and inhabitants, its influence on climate and weather, the sustainable use of its resources, and much more. This Cheat Sheet touches on a few key topics.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_277582\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-277582\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-reef.jpg\" alt=\"coral reef scene\" width=\"556\" height=\"434\" /> © Jag_cz / Shutterstock.com[/caption]","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":291362,"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/291362"}},{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282724,"slug":"oceans-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119654438","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119654432/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119654432/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119654432-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119654432/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119654432/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-for-dummies-cover-9781119654438-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Oceans For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"\n <p><b data-author-id=\"34394\">Ashlan Cousteau</b> is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and journalist with a passion for adventure. <b data-author-id=\"34395\">Philippe Cousteau</b> is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and author with a passion for adventure. He is the founder of EarthEcho International, a leading global voice for ocean conservation. <b data-author-id=\"8993\">Joseph Kraynak</b> is a writer who's contributed to several Dummies books, including Flipping Houses For Dummies, Oceans For Dummies, and Selling on Amazon For Dummies.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":34394,"name":"Ashlan Cousteau","slug":"ashlan-cousteau","description":"Ashlan Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and journalist with a passion for adventure. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34394"}},{"authorId":34395,"name":"Philippe Cousteau","slug":"philippe-cousteau","description":"Philippe Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and author with a passion for adventure. He is the founder of EarthEcho International, a leading global voice for ocean conservation. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34395"}},{"authorId":8993,"name":"Joseph Kraynak","slug":"joseph-kraynak","description":"Joseph Kraynak is a writer who's contributed to several Dummies books, including Flipping Houses For Dummies, Oceans For Dummies, and Selling on Amazon For Dummies.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8993"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119654438&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-625612c122591\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119654438&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-625612c122aed\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Ocean ecosystems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>An <a href=\"https://dummies-wp-content.dummies.com/education/science/biology/what-defines-an-ecosystem/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>ecosystem</em> </a>is like a neighborhood in which a variety of lifeforms adapt to the environment and to one another, developing complex interdependencies. If something changes, even a tiny change, it affects everything else. The ocean has a variety of ecosystems, including the following:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Tidal pools: </strong>These puddle- to pond-sized ecosystems form when seawater fills depressions near shore. They support a variety of marine life, including algae, crabs, barnacles, mussels, sea stars, urchins, snails, anenomes, and even small fish.</li>\n<li><strong>Sandy beaches: </strong>While they may seem barren at times, sandy beaches are home to sand dollars, crabs, shellfish, worms, seals, and a variety of birds, not to mention the many fish and other organisms that hang out in the shallow waters near shore. Sandy beaches also provide vital nesting areas for sea turtles and many birds.</li>\n<li><strong>Estuaries: </strong>These areas where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with salty seawater, can host a variety of ecosystems, including mudflats, marshes, mangroves, and oyster and coral reefs, each of which is home to a unique community of marine organisms.</li>\n<li><strong>Mudflats: </strong>These flat, stinky, muddy areas, uncovered at low tide, are a favorite spot for mussels and clams that filter-feed on the abundance of plankton, along with birds that feed on the abundance of mussels and clams.</li>\n<li><strong>Salt marshes: </strong>These swampy areas are composed of salt-tolerant plants and have a variety of residents including crabs, snails, mussels, and worms, along with fish and shrimp, which visit to feed and breed. They also attract birds who come mostly to feed.</li>\n<li><strong>Mangrove forests: </strong>Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs with roots that reach down from above the waterline into the substrate below, providing sheltered breeding areas for many species. Mangrove forests support a variety of marine life, including crabs, shrimp, oysters, sponges, fish, and manatees, along with reptiles and small mammals. They also play a vital role in protecting coastlines from storm surges.</li>\n<li><strong>Kelp forests: </strong>Kelp is a large plant-like algae that grows from the seafloor up to about 50 meters (160 feet) tall, providing food and shelter for large, diverse communities of marine species, including urchins, otters (which eat urchins), sea horses, baby sea turtles, crabs, sea cucumbers, and more.</li>\n<li><strong>The Sargasso Sea: </strong>This unique ecosystem consists of a massive mat of floating algae called <em>sargassum</em>, which is concentrated in one area of the Atlantic Ocean by four currents that surround it. It provides a habitat for shrimp, crab, fish, and many other marine species that have adapted specifically to it. It also serves as a vital spawning site for certain eels and fish.</li>\n<li><strong>Seagrass meadows: </strong>Seagrass is a salt-tolerant plant that grows and reproduces underwater. In addition to providing food and shelter for a variety of small marine species, these meadows are popular grazing sites for manatees, dugong, and sea turtles.</li>\n<li><strong>Coral reefs: </strong>Formed by polyps that build their homes out of calcium carbonate, coral reefs are some of the richest and most colorful ecosystems in the sea. They feed and shelter nearly every type of creature, from sponges and octopi to sharks, rays, and dolphins.</li>\n<li><strong>Oyster reefs: </strong>Formed by colonies of oysters, these reefs provide habitat and safe nurseries for diverse communities of marine life, including commercially valuable fish like anchovies.</li>\n<li><strong>Polar ecosystems: </strong>The Arctic (north) and Antarctica (south) are cold, icy areas with significant seasonal variations in temperature and sunlight. They’re home to: krill (tiny shrimp-like creatures); cold-water fish; a variety of birds, including penguins (Antarctica only); and a variety of mammals, including seals, walruses (Arctic only), whales, and polar bears (Arctic only).</li>\n<li><strong>Open ocean: </strong>Far from shore, the light-rich surface waters of the open ocean are home to photosynthetic plankton (<em>phytoplankton</em>) and zooplankton that anchor a complex food web. These plankton are eaten by fish, rays, squid, whales, and many other marine animals. Numerous predators, including sharks, dolphins, and seabirds, feed on those smaller marine animals and on other predators.</li>\n<li><strong>Deep ocean: </strong>At the bottom of the ocean are several extreme ecosystems that develop around <em>hydrothermal vents</em> (extremely hot and rich in chemicals), <em>cold seeps</em> (where hydrogen sulfide, methane, and other chemicals flow up through the seafloor), and whale carcasses (micro-ecosystems called <em>whale falls</em>). Except for whale falls, these ecosystems are possible thanks to <em>chemotrophs</em> (bacteria that feed on chemicals) — in contrast to <em>phototrophs</em>, such as algae, which use the sun’s energy to create food mostly from carbon dioxide and water.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Marine organisms","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Scientists have a formal system called a <em>taxonomy</em> for classifying all lifeforms on Earth. Organisms are classified first by domain, then kingdom, then into progressively smaller groups — phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The organism is then named using its genus and species, typically resulting in something that only someone with a PhD in Biology or Latin can pronounce; for example, the scientific name for the southern blue-ringed octopus is <em>Hapalochlaena maculosa. </em>Talk about a mouth full. Plus, these groupings can change and species can be scientifically re-assigned as scientists learn more and discover new things.</p>\n<p>In <em>Oceans For Dummies,</em> we simplify the groupings and use the Latin and Greek names only when necessary (they are their proper names of course) or when they have a nice ring to them (aka, it’s easy to pronounce). Accordingly, we classify marine organisms into the following groups:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Microbes:</strong> Mostly single-celled organisms that you can’t see without a microscope, such as bacteria, microscopic algae, and some fungi.</li>\n<li><strong>Plants:</strong> In this group, we include bona fide plants, along with other <em>photosynthetic</em> organisms, meaning they use the sun to create food from water and carbon dioxide (impressive trick) but aren’t technically plants. Seagrass, algae, seaweed (kelp), and mangroves are all plants or plant-ish.</li>\n<li><strong>Simple invertebrates: </strong>Anything without a backbone falls into this group, including sponges, jellyfish, sea anemones, sea stars, sea urchins, and a variety of slimy worms.</li>\n<li><strong>Mollusks: </strong>Anything with a hard shell and a soft body, though the hard shell may be optional. This group includes snails, sea slugs, bivalves (clams, oysters, mussels, scallops), octopus, squid, and cuttlefish.</li>\n<li><strong>Crustaceans: </strong>Think of a baguette (crusty on the outside, soft on the inside). Now, add legs, eyes, a mouth, and antennae, and you have something that looks like a crustacean. In this group are crabs, lobsters, shrimp, krill, and barnacles.</li>\n<li><strong>Fish: </strong>This one’s easy — anything with scales, gills, a tail, fins, and usually a swim bladder (to help it stay afloat without having to swim around like crazy all the time).</li>\n<li><strong>Reptiles: </strong>These guys and gals are cold-blooded, air-breathers with scales. The ocean is home to only a few reptiles — sea turtles (of course), sea snakes, saltwater crocodiles, and marine iguanas.</li>\n<li><strong>Birds: </strong>Another easy one — warm-blooded air breathers with two legs, feathers, and a beak. Flying is optional — case in point: penguins.</li>\n<li><strong>Mammals: </strong>Wow, another easy one — warm-blooded air breathers with a layer of insulation consisting of hair or fat (blubber). Members of this group include whales, dolphins (a type of whale), seals, sea lions, walruses, otters, manatee, and polar bears.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Ashlan and Philippe Cousteau’s 10 favorite sea creatures","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<ul>\n<li><strong>Nudibranchs (sea slugs): </strong>The name “sea slug” doesn’t do these creatures justice. They’re some of the most beautiful creatures in the ocean, they collect toxins from what they eat (for self-defense), they come in every color combination imaginable, and they’re some of the most graceful swimmers on earth. What more could you want in a slug?</li>\n<li><strong>Mantis shrimp: </strong>Imagine a creature that looks like a praying mantis in front and a lobster tail in back. Its front legs are like those of a praying mantis, but they end in spears (for impaling their prey) or hammers (for clubbing crabs and other prey into submission or bashing open oyster shells). Their punch can be faster than a speeding bullet and they have eyes that can move independently and see from the ultraviolet end of the spectrum through to the infrared. Oh, and the ones with the hammer hands are nicknamed “thumb splitters,” which is just cool.</li>\n<li><strong>Cone snail: </strong>A poison-tipped-harpoon-toting snail that swallows fish whole and comes in a gorgeous shell. What could be more awesome?</li>\n<li><strong>Dumbo octopus: </strong>Elephants can’t fly with their ears as depicted in Disney’s 1941 film <em>Dumbo</em>, but the dumbo octopus looks sort of like an elephant head (without the trunk) but with tentacles and prominent ear-like fins that enable it to “fly” through the water. And they’re gosh darn cute.</li>\n<li><strong>Giant pacific octopus: </strong>This largest of octopi grows up to nine meters (about 30 feet) long and weighs up to 50 kilograms (110 pounds). Like other octopi, the giant Pacific octopus is smart and talented — it can crawl and even walk on the seafloor, swim, find its way through a maze, pry open shellfish, twist the lid off a jar, recognize people’s faces, change its skin color <em>and texture</em> in seconds to camouflage itself, and more. (Full disclosure: we, especially Philippe, haven’t met an octopus we didn’t absolutely adore.)</li>\n<li><strong>Parrot fish: </strong>Numbering about 90 species, these very colorful tropical fish spend most of their day eating algae off coral reefs, which helps the corals stay healthy. Their teeth are cemented together to form a beak-like structure for chipping away at the rock-hard coral and grinding it up to get at the algae. In the process, they ingest a lot of coral, which comes out the other end as white sand poop. What’s not to love about a fish that cleans coral and contributes to the white sand beaches we love so much . . . with their fishy poopies.</li>\n<li><strong>Grouper: </strong>This diverse group accounts for more than 100 species of stocky fish with big mouths that can change color to blend in with their surroundings. They’re all born and mature as females but can change sex later (freaky but useful if your dating pool doesn’t leave you with a lot of choices). Speaking of size, the goliath grouper can grow up to 2.5 meters (about 8 feet) long and weigh up to 455 kilograms (1,000 pounds). Their size makes them unafraid of people, and they’re highly intelligent and possibly the friendliest of fish — kind of like the Labradors of the sea.</li>\n<li><strong>Great white shark: </strong>If you get into a fight in the ocean, you want one of these bad boys (or girls) on your side — the world’s largest predatory fish. The great white grows up to 6 meters (20 feet) long, weighs in at up to 2,200 kilograms (about 5,000 pounds), is shaped like a muscle-bound missile, and is equipped with powerful jaws lined with razor-sharp teeth (up to 3,000 of them). And yet, in spite of all that size and power, Great Whites move like graceful ballerinas under water.</li>\n<li><strong>Female Anglerfish: </strong>Living in the dark, deep ocean, these ladies of the night have a dorsal fin shaped like a fishing pole that protrudes from the center of their head and ends in a glow-in-the-dark lure that just happens to dangle down in front of their huge mouthful of teeth. And they can swallow fish twice their size.</li>\n</ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">What about the guys? This is where it gets really freaky. They’re usually much smaller than the females, and when a male finds one of these lovely ladies, he attaches himself to her, as a permanent parasite. After a while, he loses his eyes and all his organs except his testes, physically fusing his body with hers — a case in which moving in together is taken way too far. What’s more is that females can do this body meld thing with multiple mates at the same time (and why not?).</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sea otter: </strong>Cuteness incarnate, that’s why we love sea otters . . . that and the fact that they eat lots of sea urchins, keeping urchin populations in check so that they don’t devour all the kelp forests. Sea otters use tools (rocks) to open their food, and even keep their favorite rock in a little fur pouch near their foot. They wrap themselves and their babies in kelp so they don’t float away while napping (so smart). They’re the furriest animals on Earth, with up to 1 million hairs per square inch (compare that with the average human who has 100,000 hairs on their <em>whole head!)</em> And come on, look at those adorable faces!</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"10 biggest threats to ocean health","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The ocean that cares for us in so many ways is under serious threat from human activities. Here are the ten biggest threats to ocean health:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Greenhouse gasses: </strong>Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and other greenhouse gasses trap heat in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming and an increasing ocean temperature overall. In turn, global warming is impacting weather, precipitation, and currents; melting polar ice, and destroying entire ecosystems that have evolved over millions of years, such as coral reefs. Many of the ecosystems at risk are vital to feeding a growing human population.</li>\n<li><strong>Acidification: </strong>The ocean absorbs a huge portion of the excess carbon dioxide emitted by the burning of fossil fuels, but the chemical processes that occur when carbon dioxide reacts with water make the water more acidic. Ocean acidification is especially hard on corals, many forms of plankton, and mollusks that live in calcium carbonate homes, because the acidity dissolves the calcium they need to form their protective coverings. Ocean Acidification is eating away at many of the fundamental building blocks of ocean life, including planktonic organisms, which form the foundation of entire ocean food webs, and coral reefs which are the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth.</li>\n<li><strong>Overfishing: </strong>Harvesting too many fish and using methods that harm ecosystems and other wildlife is resulting in a situation in which the ocean is being fished out of fish. Right now, 90 percent of all fish stocks around the globe are fished to capacity or are over fished. Fortunately, over time, effective fisheries management and more marine protected areas can help to restore fish populations while increasing harvests.</li>\n<li><strong>Oil and gas drilling and pipelines: </strong>Drilling through the seafloor and laying gas and oil pipelines at the bottom of the ocean . . . hmmm, what could possibly go wrong? Mistakes happen. Equipment fails. Pipes leak. Risks rise considerably when countries like Venezuela experience political and economic instability that leads to poor maintenance and improper use of equipment. Nothing is more heartbreaking than to see than countless fishermen out of work, fish floating dead in a sea of oil, or birds and mammals choking on it.</li>\n<li><strong>Polluted runoff: </strong>Water carrying pesticides, chemical fertilizers, human and animal waste, and other harmful substances eventually makes its way from land to the ocean, killing wildlife directly or fueling harmful algae blooms that result in the death of large populations of fish and other marine creatures and pose a huge threat to human health.</li>\n<li><strong>Plastics: </strong>Plastics are synthetic products that <em>never</em> decompose They just break up into smaller pieces that pollute the water and kill wildlife. More than 300 million tons of plastic are produced every year, and at least 8 million of it ends up in the ocean. Marine animals get tangled up in it, or they eat it, sometimes starving to death on full stomachs (full of plastic, that is).</li>\n<li><strong>Inadequate protection: </strong>Only about 5 percent of the ocean is protected from abuse by being designated and managed as no-take Marine Protected Area. These areas provide a safe haven for marine life to live and reproduce, and the benefits extend far beyond the borders of the protected area.</li>\n<li><strong>Coastal development: </strong>Who doesn’t dream about living on a beach? About 37 percent of the world’s population live in coastal communities, and these same areas are hotspots for tourism. The problem is that coastal development can destroy the natural barriers, such as mangrove forests, saltwater marshes, and coral and oyster reefs, that protect the inland areas where humans tend to live. In addition, a great deal of wildlife depends on coastal habitats for their survival.</li>\n<li><strong>Shipping: </strong>Ninety percent of all goods shipped between countries crosses the ocean. Add to that cruise liners, personal boats and other watercraft, and you have a boatload of traffic. It negatively impacts ocean health in the form of oil spills, polluted ballast water (sometimes carrying invasive species), anchor damage, ship groundings and the massive amount of noise (sound pollution) created by all the vessels, which is devastating to animals like whales that use sound to communicate.</li>\n<li><strong>Aquaculture: </strong>Farming the ocean or raising aquatic animals in tanks near coastal areas can be a great solution to overfishing, as long as it’s done properly. However, when done improperly, it can be a source of: pollution; increased parasite infections in nearby wild fish populations; massive destruction of coastal areas like seagrass beds, mangroves, and more; the source of genetically engineered <em>frankenfish</em> that escape and throw the natural balance out of whack; and overfishing — caused when wild fish are used to make food for the farmed fish.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"6 win-win opportunities in the blue economy","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The concept of a Blue Economy encourages the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic development, job creation, and improving people’s lives, while at the same time preserving the ocean for future generations. In other words, it involves engaging in profitable activities that benefit the ocean — win-win opportunities. Here are six Blue Economy opportunities:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Fish less, catch more. </strong>This statement may seem counterintuitive, but it’s true. Ninety percent of the world’s fish stocks are overfished or fished to capacity. <em>Overfished</em> means not enough fish are left to rebuild the population. So, if we stopped overfishing (fished less) more fish would be left to rebuild fish stocks and <em>voila!</em> more fish to catch. Setting aside no-take marine reserves, reducing bycatch, and limiting fish catch are all ways to increase the amount of life in the ocean.</li>\n<li><strong>Harvest ocean energy. </strong>By harnessing the power of wind, waves, tides, and other sources of energy in and near the ocean, greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced, mitigating the effects of acidification and climate change on the ocean. In addition, this green energy could eliminate the need for offshore gas and oil drilling, which would mean fewer oil spills and related pollution. Yay!</li>\n<li><strong>Farm the ocean to increase its productivity. </strong>The ocean can support far more life than it currently does, enabling us to harvest more food from the ocean while reducing our dependence on marine wildlife for food. Done sustainably, this has a tremendous potential to help people and the planet.</li>\n<li><strong>Restore wetlands and mangrove forests to sequester carbon. </strong>Extracting carbon from the atmosphere and storing it (like forever) is complicated and expensive. Mangrove forests and wetlands can do the job for the cost of restoring them, while providing habitat for marine life to flourish.</li>\n<li><strong>Preserve ecosystems to profit from ecotourism. </strong>Instead of extracting resources from the ocean to sell, promote the beauty of these ecosystems through ecotourism without having to destroy them.</li>\n<li><strong>Restore natural coastal barriers to reduce costly property damage. </strong>A great deal of property damage inflicted by storms is due to coastal development, which has destroyed the natural coastal barriers such as reefs, wetlands, and mangrove forests. Restoring these barriers would significantly reduce the amount of damage and the costs of repairs related to coastal storms and flooding.</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-12T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":277581},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:52:00+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-04-07T20:49:15+00:00","timestamp":"2022-04-08T00:01:09+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Environmental Science For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"environmental science for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"environmental-science-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about the study of environmental science, including important legislation, ecosystems, sustainable principles, and more.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Environmental science is a field of study focused on Earth’s environment and the resources it provides to every living organism, including humans. Environmental scientists focus on studying the environment and everything in it and finding sustainable solutions to environmental issues. In particular, this means meeting the needs of human beings (and other organisms) today without damaging the environment, depleting resources, or compromising the earth’s ability to meet the resource needs of the future.\r\n\r\nA sustainable solution to an environmental problem must be ecologically sound, economically viable, and culturally acceptable.\r\n\r\nThis Cheat Sheet summarizes some key aspects of what environmental scientists study.","description":"Environmental science is a field of study focused on Earth’s environment and the resources it provides to every living organism, including humans. Environmental scientists focus on studying the environment and everything in it and finding sustainable solutions to environmental issues. In particular, this means meeting the needs of human beings (and other organisms) today without damaging the environment, depleting resources, or compromising the earth’s ability to meet the resource needs of the future.\r\n\r\nA sustainable solution to an environmental problem must be ecologically sound, economically viable, and culturally acceptable.\r\n\r\nThis Cheat Sheet summarizes some key aspects of what environmental scientists study.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9804,"name":"Alecia M. Spooner","slug":"alecia-m-spooner","description":"Alecia M. Spooner is the author of Geology For Dummies and Environmental Science For Dummies. She teaches earth and environmental sciences at a community college and enjoys developing active-learning science curricula for adults. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9804"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":175597,"title":"Long-Term Impact of Key Environmental Legislation in the U.S.","slug":"long-term-impact-of-key-environmental-legislation-in-the-u-s","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175597"}},{"articleId":175589,"title":"What Defines an Ecosystem?","slug":"what-defines-an-ecosystem","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175589"}},{"articleId":175588,"title":"Working toward a More Sustainable Environment","slug":"working-toward-a-more-sustainable-environment","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175588"}},{"articleId":175590,"title":"How to Characterize a Population of Living Things","slug":"how-to-characterize-a-population-of-living-things","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175590"}},{"articleId":173106,"title":"How Biological Communities Work Together","slug":"how-biological-communities-work-together","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/173106"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":291362,"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/291362"}},{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282177,"slug":"environmental-science-for-dummies","isbn":"9781118167144","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1118167147-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1118167147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/environmental-science-for-dummies-cover-9781118167144-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Environmental Science For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"\n <b data-author-id=\"9804\">Alecia M. Spooner</b> teaches Earth and Environmental Sciences at a community college and enjoys developing active-learning science curriculums for adults. Alecia is also the author of <i>Geology For Dummies</i>.","authors":[{"authorId":9804,"name":"Alecia M. Spooner","slug":"alecia-m-spooner","description":"Alecia M. Spooner is the author of Geology For Dummies and Environmental Science For Dummies. She teaches earth and environmental sciences at a community college and enjoys developing active-learning science curricula for adults. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9804"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781118167144&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-624f7b457f9d3\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781118167144&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-624f7b457ff37\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":175597,"title":"Long-Term Impact of Key Environmental Legislation in the U.S.","slug":"long-term-impact-of-key-environmental-legislation-in-the-u-s","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175597"}},{"articleId":175590,"title":"How to Characterize a Population of Living Things","slug":"how-to-characterize-a-population-of-living-things","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175590"}},{"articleId":175589,"title":"What Defines an Ecosystem?","slug":"what-defines-an-ecosystem","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175589"}},{"articleId":175588,"title":"Working toward a More Sustainable Environment","slug":"working-toward-a-more-sustainable-environment","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/175588"}}],"content":[{"title":"Long-term impact of key environmental legislation in the U.S.","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The peak of environmental legislation in the U.S. occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1970s in particular, Congress passed a number of important laws to repair environmental damage and protect the environment from further pollution. In fact, the relatively clean and healthy environment you enjoy today is a result of the laws passed during this period (some of which have been updated multiple times since their initial passing).</p>\n<p>Here are a few of the laws that continue to have a big impact today:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Clean Air Act of 1970:</b> This law was the first to regulate air pollution on a national scale and set goals for improving air quality across the U.S. It was updated in 1990 to address ozone depletion and acid rain, in addition to overall air quality.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Clean Water Act of 1972:</b> Before this law, no rules mandated what type or amount of waste could be dumped into public waters. The Clean Water Act is viewed as one of the most successful pieces of environmental legislation because it led to dramatic improvement in water quality across the U.S.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Endangered Species Act of 1973:</b> The Endangered Species Act set up a process for legally recognizing and seeking to conserve plant and animal species in danger of extinction. As a result of this law, many species have recovered from near extinction, including the bald eagle, whooping crane, and grey wolf.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974:</b> This piece of legislation was aimed at improving public health by protecting public drinking water supplies from contamination. Amendments in 1986 and 1996 shifted the focus away from treating polluted water to protecting drinking water from pollution at its source.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>National Forest Management Act of 1976:</b> This law required that national forest resources be managed through an approach that considers how timber removal affects the ecosystem as a whole. One effect of this act is that forest management plans also evaluate non-timber land use (such as recreation).</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"How to characterize a population of living things","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Scientists who study living organisms examine them from different perspectives of complexity. The simplest level is the <i>individual.</i> Each individual is a member of a population. Each <i>population</i> is made up of a group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same environment and interact with each other.</p>\n<p>Many different populations together make up a <i>community,</i> and many different communities interact with one another in an <i>ecosystem.</i> A group of ecosystems that interact with one another is called a <i>biome</i>, and all the biomes on the globe make up the Earth’s <i>biosphere.</i></p>\n<p>Examining populations, specifically, is useful because they grow, decline, and respond to their environment together. Scientists use a few common measurements to characterize populations:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Size:</b> The <i>size</i> of a population is the number of individuals that make it up.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Density:</b> The <i>density</i> of a population is the number of individuals (population size) in relation to the area they inhabit.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Distribution:</b> The <i>distribution</i> of a population indicates where the individuals are located across the environment they occupy. For example, although 1,000 honeybees may live in your backyard, most of them stay in the hive, while only a few fly around to the flowers.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Sex ratio:</b> The <i>sex ratio</i> of a population is the number of males versus females.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Age structure:</b> The <i>age structure</i> of a population describes how many individuals fall into different age classes. For example, some populations consist mainly of young individuals, while others include individuals spread across many ages.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"What defines an ecosystem?","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The basic unit of study in environmental science is the ecosystem. An <i>ecosystem</i> consists of a biological community and its physical environment. Here are the most important things you need to know about ecosystems:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">An ecosystem can be as small as a drop of water or as large as a forest.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Some ecosystems (such as caves) have clear boundaries, while others (such as forests) do not.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">An ecosystem provides the organisms that live in it what they need to survive: food (energy), water, and shelter.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">All the biological processes in an ecosystem run on energy captured from the sun.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Energy moves around an ecosystem through the food web.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">The number of producers (or plants) in an ecosystem determines that ecosystem’s productivity potential.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">An ecosystem recycles matter through the process of decomposition.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Ecosystems provide services, such as food production (farmland), water filtering (wetlands), carbon removal, raw material production (timber, rubber), and aesthetic value.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">Because many modern human societies get their food, water, and other resources from all over the planet, you can consider the entire globe to be the human ecosystem.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Working toward a more sustainable environment","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Environmental science is all about finding ways to live more sustainably, which means using resources today in a way that maintains their supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t mean living without luxuries, but rather being aware of your resource consumption and reducing unnecessary waste.</p>\n<p>The following sustainability measures start small with what you can do individually to take better care of the Earth; the list then branches out to cover more far-reaching changes.</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Eating locally:</b> Depending more on locally available food reduces the amount of energy used in food transportation and supports your local food-producing economy.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Recycling:</b> Doing so reduces trash and conserves natural resources.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Conserving water:</b> <i>Water conservation</i> is the process of using less water to begin with and recycling or reusing as much water as possible. The goal of water conservation is to maintain a freshwater supply that can meet the needs of as many people as possible for as long as possible.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Taking steps toward smarter land use:</b> Both large-scale and small-scale possibilities include compact architecture and urban design to efficiently use land space, mixed-use planning that locates businesses close to where people live, and creation of parks and other green spaces to provide recreation for people and habitat for wildlife.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Creating a sustainable economy:</b> Environmental economists seek to include the cost of environmental damage in product pricing through taxes, fines, and regulations.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Six months","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-07T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208293},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2022-03-08T16:27:06+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-03-08T16:28:47+00:00","timestamp":"2022-03-08T18:01:10+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"climate change for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"climate-change-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"This Cheat Sheet summarizes the main aspects climate change, explaining greenhouse gases, effects on the planet, and how you can help.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"This Cheat Sheet describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions.\r\n\r\nAlthough climate change is connected to ugly futures, melting icecaps, rising sea levels, soaring temperatures, worsening hurricanes and monsoons, and the list goes on, it’s also a link to a better future. Climate change is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.","description":"This Cheat Sheet describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions.\r\n\r\nAlthough climate change is connected to ugly futures, melting icecaps, rising sea levels, soaring temperatures, worsening hurricanes and monsoons, and the list goes on, it’s also a link to a better future. Climate change is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9735,"name":"Elizabeth May","slug":"elizabeth-may","description":"Elizabeth May, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9735"}},{"authorId":34718,"name":"John Kidder","slug":"john-kidder","description":"John Kidder is an environmental activist and writer. He is a former leader of Canada's Green Party and in 2019 was a Federal Council candidate for the party.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34718"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}},{"articleId":284273,"title":"Gastropods: Putting Their One Foot Forward","slug":"gastropods-putting-their-one-foot-forward","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284273"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":290945,"slug":"climate-change-for-dummies","isbn":"9781119703105","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119703107-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119703107/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119703105-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Climate Change For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"\n <p><b data-author-id=\"9735\">Elizabeth May</b>, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. <b data-author-id=\"34718\">John Kidder</b> is an environmental activist and writer. He is a former leader of Canada's Green Party and in 2019 was a Federal Council candidate for the party.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9735,"name":"Elizabeth May","slug":"elizabeth-may","description":"Elizabeth May, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9735"}},{"authorId":34718,"name":"John Kidder","slug":"john-kidder","description":"John Kidder is an environmental activist and writer. He is a former leader of Canada's Green Party and in 2019 was a Federal Council candidate for the party.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34718"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119703105&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-622799e67c523\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119703105&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-622799e67d027\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Understanding greenhouse gases","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Planet Earth is warm enough to sustain life, thanks to gases in the planet’s atmosphere that hold heat. These gases are called <em>greenhouse gases</em> <em>(GHGs)</em> because they act like a greenhouse — they trap heat inside the  atmosphere.</p>\n<p>The more GHGs in the atmosphere, the warmer the planet gets. The average temperature on Earth has historically been 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius), but humans have increased GHGs in the atmosphere by about 35 percent.</p>\n<p>So far, these additional gases have caused Earth’s average global temperature to increase by 1.9 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 degrees Celsius). The consensus among the world’s scientists is that the temperature must not go beyond 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius) without risking catastrophic effects. Therefore, the slogan and call to action “1.5 to stay alive.”</p>\n<p>Following, are some basics about GHGs.</p>\n<h3>The main GHGs</h3>\n<p>The two major GHGs both occur naturally and can be increased due to human activity:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>)</strong>: Responsible for 80 percent of global warming, this gas is produced from burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. It also occurs naturally as it flows in a cycle between oceans, soil, plants, and animals.</li>\n<li><strong>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>):</strong> Responsible for 19 percent of global warming, this gas is produced by fracking and developing natural gas (which is itself methane), rotting garbage and wastewater, gas from livestock, and rice crops. Swamps and anything that decomposes without air naturally creates methane.</li>\n</ul>\n<h3>Two main sources of GHGs</h3>\n<p>Here are the two main sources of GHGs:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Energy use:</strong> Humans derive energy from burning fossil fuels, which releases almost three quarters of all human-produced GHGs into the atmosphere. Half of all fossil fuels are burned to provide electricity and heat; the next big users of fossil fuels are manufacturing and transportation.</li>\n<li><strong>Land use:</strong> How humans remove forests and use land contributes more than a quarter of all human-produced GHGs to the atmosphere. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, so logging and clearing forest land for agriculture and development means more carbon dioxide stays in the air.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Five ways to reduce your greenhouse gas emissions","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>What you can do to help reduce your carbon footprint depends on where you live, the resources you have, and how much time you can give. If you want to do something about global warming, however, then simple changes can have a big impact. Here are some straightforward solutions that you can implement right away:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Eat less (or no) meat.</strong> Going vegetarian has the same impact on reducing GHG emissions as if you trade in a regular car for an electric vehicle. The process of making a pound of commercial meat uses ten times more energy than making a pound of beans or grains.</li>\n<li><strong>Hook your home up to clean energy.</strong> If you can’t afford to install solar panels or wind turbines on your roof, you can tap into an independent clean energy supplier. Let them build the wind turbine, and you reap the benefits. This step reduces your own emissions and helps build the renewable energy industry.</li>\n<li><strong>Insulate your house.</strong> The average home has the equivalent of a basketball-sized hole in the side of its wall. That’s how much heating and cooling you can keep from escaping if you properly insulate your home’s ceilings, walls, windows, and doors.</li>\n<li><strong>Travel smart.</strong> Reducing the number of flights you take in a year has a huge impact. One long-haul flight can be enough to double your impact on climate change, so think twice before taking that long trip. Whenever possible, take the train or bus. Minimize your driving by carpooling, walking, biking, or taking public transit.</li>\n<li><strong>Use only the energy you need.</strong> Develop energy saving habits — turn off the lights and TV when you leave the room, and turn down your thermostats when the house is empty in winter, and up in summer. Choose low-energy technologies by looking for the <a href=\"https://www.energystar.gov/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">ENERGY STAR</a> logo on all appliances, electronics, computers, and more. These qualification standards highlight products that use the least energy.</li>\n<li><strong>Make major purchases climate-aware. </strong>When it does come time to trade in your car, put a new roof on your house, install a new furnace or air conditioning, or buy new major appliances, you can make a real contribution to the climate, and save yourself money, by taking advantage of the huge strides made by manufacturers in all these areas. Your economic and environmental choices have a real impact.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Major potential effects of global warming","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The impact of global warming will increase in the coming years, but the degree of change will vary greatly, depending on where you live and depending on how rapidly nations around the world reduce GHG emissions.</p>\n<p>No matter where you live, though, the unchecked impacts of climate change are potentially catastrophic in the long term:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>It</strong> <strong>affects people.</strong> Depending on their location, people may be affected by disease, rising sea levels, drought, or major storms. The impact of these effects will be greatest on those with the least financial resources to adapt to or recover from the effects.</li>\n<li><strong>It causes extreme weather.</strong> While the atmosphere warms, the climate is changing, and so is the weather. More frequent and more intense storms, flooding, droughts, heat waves, and even extreme snowfalls are all part of the changes.</li>\n<li><strong>It</strong> <strong>increases extinctions.</strong> Changing climates mean that some environments may no longer be hospitable for certain plants or animals, which will need to relocate to survive. Some species, such as polar bears, have nowhere to go. Extinction is a possibility for many species of animals and plants, which may be unable to adapt to their environment at the same speed at which the climate is changing it.</li>\n<li><strong>It</strong> <strong>melts ice at the poles.</strong> The Arctic ice is melting so rapidly that within a few years the North Pole will be ice covered only seasonally. This has a dramatic impact on the planet’s climate: Polar ice reflects sunlight and deflects heat; when it melts, more of that heat stays in the atmosphere. The melting of the Greenland and Western Antarctic Ice Sheets threatens an extreme rise in sea levels.</li>\n<li><strong>It warms oceans.</strong> While the oceans warm, water is expanding and causing sea levels to rise. Warmer waters are killing coral reefs and krill — essential to supporting the sea food web.</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Key climate change/global warming terms","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The phrase <em>climate change</em> hasn’t been around long, but <em>global warming,</em> as it’s also known, is nothing new. In fact, it has been a constant throughout history. Earth’s climate today is very different from what it was 2 million years ago, let alone 10,000 years ago.</p>\n<p>Here are the key terms that are crucial to understanding global warming:</p>\n<p><strong>Carbon cycle: </strong>The natural system that, ideally, creates a balance between carbon <em>emitters </em>(such as humans) and carbon <em>absorbers</em> (such as trees), so the atmosphere doesn’t contain an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide. (Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are expressed as parts per million, or ppm.)</p>\n<p><strong>Carbon sinks: </strong>Anything that absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores carbon. The ocean, trees, and soil are all carbon sinks.</p>\n<p><strong>Fossil fuels:</strong> Fuels, such as oil and coal, that are made from the fossils of old plants, which have taken hundreds of thousands of years to form underground.</p>\n<p><strong>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): </strong>An international body of the United Nations, composed of more than 2,000 scientific experts. The IPCC compiles peer-reviewed climate science to create an objective source of climate information.</p>\n<p><strong>Paris Agreement:</strong> The international agreement under the United Nations to limit global heating to as far as possible below 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit (2.0 degrees Celsius) above the pre-industrial global average temperatures, and to attempt to keep global heating to 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius). The Paris Agreement has been ratified by more than 200 countries.</p>\n<p><strong>Renewable energy: </strong>A continual source of energy, such as energy from the sun, wind, flowing water, heat from the Earth, or movement of the tides.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"One year","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-03-08T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":291362},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:55:40+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-03-01T14:17:21+00:00","timestamp":"2022-03-01T18:01:06+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Weather For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"weather for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"weather-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Here's a quick reference guide to key weather terms and cloud types to help you explore more about the phenomena you see every day.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Who doesn’t talk about the weather? But, if you know the meanings of some key weather words, you can talk even more fluently. And clouds provide scope for imagination and help in predicting and anticipating weather changes.","description":"Who doesn’t talk about the weather? But, if you know the meanings of some key weather words, you can talk even more fluently. And clouds provide scope for imagination and help in predicting and anticipating weather changes.","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}},{"articleId":284273,"title":"Gastropods: Putting Their One Foot Forward","slug":"gastropods-putting-their-one-foot-forward","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284273"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-621e5f62a15a6\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-621e5f62a1f09\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":191217,"title":"Key Weather Words Defined","slug":"key-weather-words-defined","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/191217"}},{"articleId":191220,"title":"Types of Cloud","slug":"types-of-cloud","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/191220"}}],"content":[{"title":"Key weather words defined","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>If you want to talk about the weather, it helps to know the lingo. The following list contains words both common and uncommon you need to know to discuss weather and weather conditions knowledgably:</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Atmosphere:</b> The envelope of gases that compose the air<br />\nsurrounding Earth.</td>\n<td><b>Low pressure system:</b> An area of rising air usually<br />\nmarked by cloudiness, often referred to as a storm.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Chaos:</b> A state of a system in which disturbances large<br />\nand small grow and decay. (The atmosphere is chaotic, and so is<br />\nunpredictable beyond a few days.)</td>\n<td><b>Ozone hole:</b> A thinning of the protective ozone layer in<br />\nthe stratosphere, often observed over Antarctica since the late<br />\n1970s during the Southern Hemisphere’s spring.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Climate:</b> The average, long-term weather of a place.</td>\n<td><b>Precipitation:</b> Water vapor that condenses in the<br />\natmosphere, falling to the surface as rain, snow, or ice.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Coriolis Effect:</b> The “bending” effect of the<br />\nEarth’s rotation on the path of things in motion in the<br />\natmosphere and the ocean. The bending or deflection of its course<br />\nis to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the<br />\nSouthern Hemisphere.</td>\n<td><b>Pressure:</b> The weight of the air overhead, exerted in all<br />\ndirections on everything air touches. Horizontal differences in<br />\npressure cause winds. Vertical differences in air pressure<br />\ninfluence cloud formation and storm development.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Dewpoint:</b> The temperature to which air must be cooled in<br />\norder for it to become saturated with water vapor.</td>\n<td><b>Relative humidity:</b> The percentage of the air that is<br />\nsaturated with water vapor at the current temperature. A value that<br />\nchanges with temperature. Air that is saturated at 50 degrees<br />\n— 100 percent relative humidity — falls to about 50<br />\npercent relative humidity when its temperature rises to 70<br />\ndegrees.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>El Niño:</b> The tropical Pacific Ocean becomes<br />\nwarmer, and air pressure changes, reducing the strength of east to<br />\nwest winds. These changes can affect weather in many parts of the<br />\nworld.</td>\n<td><b>Solstice:</b> The point reached on or about June 21 and<br />\nDecember 21 when the seasonal track of sunlight over the Earth<br />\nreaches its northernmost and southernmost progress.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Equinox:</b> Latin for “equal nights.” The time in<br />\nspring and autumn when the Sun shines directly over the Equator and<br />\nhours of daylight and darkness are equal everywhere.</td>\n<td><b>Stratosphere:</b> The layer of much thinner gases in the<br />\natmosphere above the troposphere, between 7 miles and 30 miles in<br />\nheight. It includes the ozone layer. It is called the stratosphere<br />\nbecause the temperatures are usually stratified and uniform at this<br />\nlevel.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Global warming:</b> The idea that the continual buildup of<br />\ngreenhouse gases in the atmosphere is leading to warming of<br />\ntemperatures that could alter climate patterns and seriously<br />\ndisrupt societies.</td>\n<td><b>Troposphere:</b> The lowest part of the atmosphere, where<br />\nall of the weather takes place. Its height averages about 7 miles,<br />\nranging from about 5 miles at the poles to about 10 miles at the<br />\nEquator.</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>High pressure system:</b> An area where more air has been<br />\nadded overhead than in surrounding areas. That accounts for higher<br />\nbarometric pressure. Typically, the air enters at high altitudes,<br />\nsinks, and exits at ground level. The sinking motion causes warming<br />\nand drying, leaving the clear sky often found in high pressure<br />\nareas.</td>\n<td><b>Wind chill:</b> The additional cooling effect of wind<br />\nblowing on bare skin.</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n"},{"title":"Types of clouds","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Clouds play a large role in discussing, predicting, and watching the weather — not to mention providing scope for daydreams and flights of fancy. The following list describes the common cloud types that form in various layers of the atmosphere — their names and what they look like — as well as clouds that form vertically.</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>High layered</b> (above 17,000 feet):</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Cirrus:</b> Delicate white strands of ice crystals, often forming “mares tails.”</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Cirrostratus:</b> A veil of white cloudiness often covering the entire sky, causing “halos” around the moon and Sun and frequently indicating an approaching storm.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Cirrocumulus:</b> Small white patchy patterns like fish scales and often called “mackerel skies.”</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Middle layered</b> (6,000 to 17,000 feet):</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">*<b>Altostratus: </b>Drab gray clouds of water droplets that obscure the image of the sun or moon. They can produce rain and snow.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Altocumulus:</b> A darker, larger pattern of patchiness that may produce a shower.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Low layered</b> (below 6,000 feet):</p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Stratus:</b> Wispy cloud of fog that hangs a few hundred feet above the ground, often bringing drizzle.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Stratocumulus:</b> Dark gray clouds, often covering the entire sky, which usually do not rain. They form rounded wavelike bands that are broken by blue sky.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Nimbostratus:</b> Low, dark, ragged rain clouds that often bring continuous rain or sleet or snow.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Vertical clouds:</b></p>\n<ul class=\"level-two\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Cumulus</b>: Large, billowy “cotton balls” of clouds with dark bottoms and bright white tops that can reach 10,000 feet high. May produce brief showers.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Cumulonimbus:</b> Towering thunderheads, dark on the bottom and white anvil-shaped tops that can extend to 50,000 feet. Often produces lightning and heavy precipitation, including hail, and occasionally tornadoes.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-03-01T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208889},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:49:32+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-02-16T20:26:55+00:00","timestamp":"2022-02-24T17:07:33+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Global Warming For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"global warming for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"global-warming-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Discover what greenhouse gases are, how and why they are formed, and what you can do to help combat global warming.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Global warming is already changing the environment, the economy, and people’s ways of living. The changes aren’t over, either, and the more that changes around the world, the more critical it is to understand this complex and important issue. The following describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions. Although global warming is connected to scary scenarios featuring soaring temperatures and worsening hurricanes and monsoons, it’s also a link to a better future. Global warming is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.","description":"Global warming is already changing the environment, the economy, and people’s ways of living. The changes aren’t over, either, and the more that changes around the world, the more critical it is to understand this complex and important issue. The following describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions. Although global warming is connected to scary scenarios featuring soaring temperatures and worsening hurricanes and monsoons, it’s also a link to a better future. Global warming is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9735,"name":"Elizabeth May","slug":"elizabeth-may","description":"Elizabeth May, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9735"}},{"authorId":9736,"name":"Zoe Caron","slug":"zoe-caron","description":"Zoe Caron is an environmentalist, policy advisor, and climate specialist.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9736"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":167465,"title":"Key Global Warming Terms","slug":"key-global-warming-terms","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167465"}},{"articleId":167466,"title":"Five Ways to Reduce Your Greenhouse <br/>Gas Emissions","slug":"five-ways-to-reduce-your-greenhouse-gas-emissions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167466"}},{"articleId":167461,"title":"Understanding Greenhouse Gases","slug":"understanding-greenhouse-gases","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167461"}},{"articleId":167462,"title":"Major Potential Effects of Global Warming","slug":"major-potential-effects-of-global-warming","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167462"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}},{"articleId":284273,"title":"Gastropods: Putting Their One Foot Forward","slug":"gastropods-putting-their-one-foot-forward","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284273"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282240,"slug":"global-warming-for-dummies","isbn":"9780470840986","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0470840986/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/0470840986/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/0470840986-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0470840986/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/0470840986/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/global-warming-for-dummies-cover-9780470840986-202x255.jpg","width":202,"height":255},"title":"Global Warming For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"\n <b data-author-id=\"9735\">Elizabeth May</b> is the leader of the Green Party of Canada. Dr. May is a lawyer and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. <p><b data-author-id=\"9736\">Zoe Caron</b> serves on the Board of Directors of the Sierra Club of Canada. She works with Students on Ice Expeditions, bringing students from around the world to the Arctic and Antarctic to learn about the importance of these regions.</p> ","authors":[{"authorId":9735,"name":"Elizabeth May","slug":"elizabeth-may","description":"Elizabeth May, JD, was the leader of the Green Party of Canada from 2006 to 2019. May is a lawyer, an environmentalist, and the author of six books on Canadian environmental issues. She has been recognized twice by the United Nations for her work in the environmental movement. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9735"}},{"authorId":9736,"name":"Zoe Caron","slug":"zoe-caron","description":"Zoe Caron is an environmentalist, policy advisor, and climate specialist.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9736"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9780470840986&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb557f313\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9780470840986&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb557fcc2\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":167461,"title":"Understanding Greenhouse Gases","slug":"understanding-greenhouse-gases","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167461"}},{"articleId":167466,"title":"Five Ways to Reduce Your Greenhouse <br/>Gas Emissions","slug":"five-ways-to-reduce-your-greenhouse-gas-emissions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167466"}},{"articleId":167462,"title":"Major Potential Effects of Global Warming","slug":"major-potential-effects-of-global-warming","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167462"}},{"articleId":167465,"title":"Key Global Warming Terms","slug":"key-global-warming-terms","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/167465"}}],"content":[{"title":"Understanding greenhouse gases","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Planet Earth is warm enough to sustain life thanks to gases in the planet’s atmosphere that hold heat. These gases are called <i>greenhouse gases</i> because they act just like a greenhouse — trapping the heat inside the planet’s atmosphere, making the average temperature on Earth 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius). Humans have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by about 35 percent. The more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the warmer the average temperature gets.</p>\n<h2>The main greenhouse gases</h2>\n<p>The two major greenhouse gases both occur naturally and can be increased due to human activity.</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>):</b> Responsible for 63 percent of global warming over time, and 91 percent in the last 5 years, this gas is produced from burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. It also occurs naturally as it flows in a cycle between oceans, soil, plants and animals.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>): </b>Responsible for 19 percent of global warming, this gas is produced by rotting garbage and wastewater, gas from livestock, and rice crops. Swamps and anything that decomposes without air naturally creates methane.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h2>Two main sources of greenhouse gases</h2>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Energy use: </b>Humans derive energy from burning fossil fuels, which releases almost three quarters of all human-produced greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Half of all fossil fuels are burned to provide electricity and heat; the next big users of fossil fuels are manufacturing and transportation.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Land use: </b>How humans remove forests and use land contributes over one quarter of all human-produced greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, so<b> </b>logging and clearing forest land for agriculture and development means more carbon dioxide stays in the air.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Five ways to reduce your greenhouse gas emissions","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>What you can do to help reduce your carbon footprint depends on where you live, the resources you have, and how much time you can give. If you want to do something about global warming, however, then simple changes can have a big impact. Here are some straightforward solutions that you can implement right away:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Eat less (or no) meat.</b> Going vegetarian has the same impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions as if you trade in a regular car for a hybrid. The process of making a pound of commercial meat uses ten times more energy than making a pound of beans or grains.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\">* <b>Hook your home up to clean energy.</b> If you can’t afford to install solar panels or wind turbines on your roof, you can tap into an independent clean energy supplier. Let them build the wind turbine, and you reap the benefits. This step reduces your own emissions and helps build the renewable energy industry.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Insulate your house. </b>The average home has the equivalent of a basketball-sized hole in the side of its wall. That’s how much heating and cooling you can keep from escaping if you properly insulate your home’s ceilings, walls, windows, and doors.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Travel smart.</b> Reducing the number of flights you take in a year has a huge impact. One long-haul flight can be enough to double your impact on climate change, so think twice before taking that long trip. Whenever possible, take the train or bus. Minimize your driving by carpooling, walking, biking, or taking public transit.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Use only the energy you need.</b> Develop energy saving habits — turn off the lights and TV when you leave the room, and turn down your thermostats when the house is empty in winter, and up in summer. Choose low-energy technologies by looking for the ENERGY STAR or Energy Savings logos on all appliances, electronics, computers, and more. These qualification standards highlight products that use the least energy.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Major potential effects of global warming","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The impact of global warming will increase in the coming years, but the degree of change will vary greatly, depending on where you live and depending on how rapidly nations around the world reduce greenhouse emissions. No matter where you live, though, the unchecked impacts of climate change are potentially catastrophic in the long-term.</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>It</b> <b>affects people:</b> Depending on their location, people may be affected by disease, rising sea levels, drought, or major storms. The impact of these effects will be greatest on those with the least financial resources to adapt to or recover from the effects.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>It</b> <b>causes</b> <b>extreme weather: </b>While the atmosphere warms, the climate is changing, and so is the weather. More frequent and more intense storms, flooding, droughts, heat waves, and even extreme snowfalls are all part of the changes.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>It</b> <b>increases extinctions:</b> Changing climates mean that some environments may no longer be hospitable for certain plants or animals, which will need to relocate to survive. Some species, such as polar bears, have nowhere to go. Extinction is a possibility for many species of animals and plants, which may be unable to adapt to their environment at the same speed at which the climate is changing it.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>It</b> <b>melts ice at the poles:</b> The Arctic ice is melting so rapidly that within a few years the North Pole will be ice covered only seasonally. This has a dramatic impact on the planet’s climate: Polar ice reflects sunlight and deflects heat; when it melts, more of that heat stays in the atmosphere. The melting of the Greenland and Western Antarctic Ice Sheets threatens an extreme rise in sea levels.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>It</b> <b>warms oceans:</b> While the oceans warm, water is expanding and causing sea levels to rise. Warmer waters are killing coral reefs and krill — essential to supporting the sea food web.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Key global warming terms","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The phrase “global warming” hasn’t been around long, but climate change, as it’s also known, is nothing new. In fact, it has been a constant throughout history. Earth’s climate today is very different from what it was 2 million years ago, let alone 10,000 years ago. Here are the key terms that are crucial to understanding global warming:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Carbon cycle: </b>The natural system that, ideally, creates a balance between carbon emitters (such as humans) and carbon absorbers (such as trees), so the atmosphere doesn’t contain an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide. (Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are expressed as parts per million, or ppm.)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Carbon sinks: </b>Anything that absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores carbon. The ocean, trees, and soil are all carbon sinks.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Fossil fuels: </b>Fuels, such as oil and coal, that are made from the fossils of old plants, which have taken hundreds of thousands of years to form underground.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): </b>An international body of the United Nations, composed of over 2,000 scientific experts. The IPCC compiles peer-reviewed climate science to create an objective source of climate information.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Kyoto Protocol: </b>The international agreement under the United Nations to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions from industrialized countries by 5.2 percent below 1990 levels by the year 2012. The Protocol is ratified by 177 countries.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Renewable energy: </b>A continual source of energy, such as energy from the sun, wind, flowing water, heat from the Earth, or movement of the tides.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Six months","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-12-29T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":207984},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2021-04-20T18:41:11+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-04-20T18:41:11+00:00","timestamp":"2022-02-24T17:06:23+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","strippedTitle":"check out the bones on those osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about two groups of bony fish (ray-finned and lobe finned) and the common, the cool, and the weird in each group.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"<em>Osteichthyes </em>(pronounced <em>ah-stee-ick-thees</em>) is a class of about 28,000 fish characterized (in most forms) by a bony skeleton, scales (some without), paired fins, a single pair of gill openings supported by bony gill arches each covered by an operculum, jaws, a mouth with many teeth, a swim bladder (air-filled sack) for buoyancy, paired nostrils, and external fertilization of eggs.\r\n\r\nBony fish are generally broken down into two groups:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ray-finned fish: </strong>Ray-finned fish have fins supported by spines; the fins are moved by muscles in the body of the fish that do not extend into the fins. They (usually) have a pair of pectoral fins and a pair of pelvic fins, along with dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, and most look like, well, a fish — their bodies are oval-ish and tapered at each end. They breathe primarily through gills. And they have a <em>lateral line</em> — a row of organs that sense changes in water pressure, movement, and vibrations (kind of like the sensitive hairs in our inner ears) which helps them find prey and not become prey themselves.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lobe-finned fish:</strong> Lobe-finned fish have rounded fins (shaped more like your earlobes), which are supported by muscles and articulated bones (bones that meet to form joints). In other words, their fins are more like hands than typical fish fins, though the end of each fin has thin, bony structures that fan out from the core of the fin. These fins are thought to be the precursors of amphibian legs and feet. Lobe-finned fish also have two dorsal fins (instead of one), and they have both gills and lungs (though they’re not functional in certain species), which enables some of them to breathe on land or under water.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284318\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284318\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-ray-vs-lobed-finned.jpg\" alt=\"Ray-finned and lobe-finned fish compared.\" width=\"350\" height=\"600\" /> Ray-finned and lobe-finned fish compared.[/caption]\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">As your mother told you when you experienced your first heartbreak, there’s always more fish in the sea. With bony fish, that means 28,000 species and counting. We can’t possibly cover them all, so we kept this discussion brief by describing the two groups (ray-finned and lobe-finned) and highlighting the common, the cool, and the weird in each group.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731404\"></a>Ray finned</h2>\r\n<em>Actinopterygii</em> (ray-finned fish) are, by far, the largest and most diverse group of bony fish. They include anchovies, angelfish, barracuda, catfish, cod, eels, flounder, flying fish, frogfish, gars, grouper, grunt, halibut, herring, hogfish, jacks, lionfish, mackerel, marlin, minnows, mullet, needlefish, perch, piranha, pompano, porgy, sailfish, sardines, sea bass, sea trout, seahorses, shad, sheepshead, snappers, snook, sole, sturgeon, swordfish, tarpon, triggerfish, toothfish, tuna . . . we could go on but we think you get the idea.\r\n\r\nBut let’s look at some notable members of the group. Imagine an award show with categories for the smallest, biggest, fastest, and so on:\r\n\r\n<strong>Smallest: </strong>Stout infantfish are barely as long as the width of a pencil — females max out at about 8.4 millimeters long, while males grow to only 7 millimeters. They’re also the smallest and lightest of all known vertebrates. If you ordered a pound of stout infantfish from the menu, you’d get a plate of roughly 500,000 fish!\r\n\r\n<strong>Largest: </strong>The sunfish (Mola Mola) can grow to be over 2,268 kilograms (5,000 pounds). They live in warm water and look like a swimming fish head that has been smushed.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284316\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284316\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-sunfish.jpg\" alt=\"a sunfish\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Keith Ellenbogen—www.keithellenbogen.com<br /><br />A sunfish.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Fastest:</strong> The black marlin has been clocked at a maximum speed of about 129 kilometers per hour (about 80 mph).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284315\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284315\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-striped-marlin.jpg\" alt=\"striped marlin\" width=\"556\" height=\"352\" /> Source: Pier Nirandara—www.piernirandara.com<br /><br />A striped marlin feeding on a bait ball.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Longest:</strong> The giant oarfish is a long serpent-looking pelagic fish up to eight meters (26 feet) long. They’re silver with a red mohawk looking fin. They cherish their privacy and are rarely seen alive.\r\n\r\n<strong>Coolest:</strong> The Antarctic icefish lacks hemoglobin in its blood, making it clear and less susceptible to freezing, sort of like anti-freeze, which is useful for any fish living in the frigid waters off Antarctica. Due to this lack of hemoglobin, they have huge hearts and almost four times the amount of blood as other fish.\r\n\r\n<strong>Weirdest couple: </strong>Female anglerfish have it going on! Living in the dark, deep <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/environmental-science/oceans-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\">ocean</a>, these ladies have a dangling dorsal fin tipped with luminescent skin, which functions as a fishing rod protruding from the center of their head ending in a glow-in-the-dark lure just in front of their huge mouth full of teeth. And she has all the guys attached at the hip, seriously. Male anglerfish are usually much smaller than the females. When a male finds one of these lovely ladies, he attaches himself to her as a permanent parasite. After a while, he loses his eyes and all his organs except his testes, physically fusing his body with hers. Talk about a Stage 4 clinger! Females can carry around multiple mates.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284314\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284314\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-anglerfish.jpg\" alt=\"anglerfish\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, L. Madin – www.whoi.edu<br /><br />A female anglerfish—notice its “fishing pole” appendage is angled backward.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Cutest:</strong> Seahorses get by on their looks. Remember when we said most ray-finned fish look like fish? Well, seahorses are one of those exceptions. They swim around upright with what looks like a little armored body and quick moving fins. They have a tubular snout used for eating plankton and fish larvae. And it’s the male seahorses that carry around the fertilized eggs in a special pouch until they hatch — how adorable is that?!\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284313\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284313\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-sea-horse.jpg\" alt=\"sea horse\" width=\"400\" height=\"600\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />Sea horses are the cutest critters and pygmy seahorses are the cutest of the cute.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Father of the year:</strong> Speaking of caring fathers, the jawfish is a paternal mouthbrooder, meaning he holds the fertilized eggs in his mouth till they hatch (see the following figure). Every so often, he spits them out, a practice called <em>churning</em>, which keeps the eggs aerated, hydrated, and clean, thereby increasing the chances that more will hatch. All the while, he doesn’t eat a thing. Fortunately for him, the incubation period for the eggs is only five to seven days.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284312\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284312\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-jawfish.jpg\" alt=\"jawfish\" width=\"556\" height=\"517\" /> Source: Tracy Candish—https://www.flickr.com/photos/[email protected]/33874845733<br /><br />Mr. Mom, the jawfish, incubating the fertilized eggs.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Friendliest:</strong> Yep, fish can be friendly, and a perfect example is the grouper. Because of their large size (the goliath grouper can grow to be almost 800 pounds), these fish are not really scared of anything and are naturally curious. We have had many encounters with grouper fish over the years, and honestly, they are the Golden Retrievers of the sea. The grouper in the following figure actually took Ashlan on a tour of his home, following her along her entire dive and nudging her when she wasn’t paying him enough attention.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284311\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284311\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-grouper.jpg\" alt=\"Nassau grouper\" width=\"556\" height=\"313\" /> Source: Ashlan Cousteau<br /><br />Ashlan and a Nassau grouper.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Longest living:</strong> Orange roughy, brightly colored and slow moving, can live up to 200 years — that is, unless they’re eaten (by us). The problem with eating orange roughy is that they don’t reach sexual maturity until the age of 20, so they’re <em>exceedingly</em> susceptible to over-fishing, and they’re caught using the super destructive fishing method of bottom trawling. If you need another reason not to eat them, they’re often full of heavy metals, such as mercury, because they live a long time and bio-magnify toxins into their tissue. So next time you are at a restaurant and they offer you orange roughy as a special, just say no and feel free to tell the waiter (and the chef) why. Honestly, most people, even in restaurants, don’t know how bad and destructive catching some of these fish is. A little schooling goes a long way.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731405\"></a>Lobe-finned</h2>\r\n<em>Sarcopterygii </em>(lobe-finned fish) are a group of only eight living species with lobe-shaped fins, two dorsal fins, gills, and lungs (which aren’t functional in certain species). They’re broken down into two classes — coelacanths and lungfish.\r\n<h3>Coelacanths</h3>\r\nThought to have gone extinct 66 million years ago with the dinos, a coelacanth was spotted at a fish market in 1938. Two extant (living) species are now recognized — the West Indian Ocean coelacanth and Indonesian coelacanth. Referred to as a living fossil, many scientists see them as a possible link between sea creatures and four-legged land animals, such as salamanders, newts, and lizards. Living as deep as 2,000 feet, these carnivorous fish sleep in caves during the day and hunt for prey (mostly octopus, squid, and cuttlefish) at night. They grow to be about 6 feet long and weigh up to about 200 pounds.\r\n\r\nIn 2010, Laurent Ballesta led a confidential Gombessa expedition in Jesser Canyon, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, to capture the very first pictures of the coelacanth taken by a diver (–120 meters). This was possible thanks to the South African diver Peter Timm, who was the first to face the mythical fish locally named Gombessa. Discover more in the book, <em><a href=\"https://laurentballesta.com/\">Gombessa, Meeting with the Coelacanth</a></em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284310\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284310\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-gombessa.jpg\" alt=\"Gombessa\" width=\"556\" height=\"370\" /> Source: Laurent Ballesta<br /><br />Gombessa, the local name for the South African coelacanth.[/caption]\r\n\r\nCoelacanths have lungs during their embryonic development that stop developing as the fish grows and are barely noticeable (and non-functioning) in adults. They also have a <em>rostral organ</em> in their snout that’s part of an electro-sensory system and a hinged skull that enables the back of the skull to tilt up to enlarge the opening of the mouth.\r\n<h3>Lungfish</h3>\r\nAs their name implies, lungfish can breathe air. Yep, they have either one or two lungs (depending on the species) to extract oxygen from the air, and they also have gills to extract oxygen from water. These are freshwater fish that live in rivers and lakes in Australia, Africa, and South America. And they’re big — most species growing up to 1.2 to 2.1 meters (4 to 7 feet) long. Lungfish have horrible eye sight, but their great sense of smell, lateral lines, and sensitive touch (with their pectoral and pelvic fins) make up for it. African lungfish can also go into a deep sleep (<em>estivation</em>) for up to two years — a slimy sleeping beauty.","description":"<em>Osteichthyes </em>(pronounced <em>ah-stee-ick-thees</em>) is a class of about 28,000 fish characterized (in most forms) by a bony skeleton, scales (some without), paired fins, a single pair of gill openings supported by bony gill arches each covered by an operculum, jaws, a mouth with many teeth, a swim bladder (air-filled sack) for buoyancy, paired nostrils, and external fertilization of eggs.\r\n\r\nBony fish are generally broken down into two groups:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ray-finned fish: </strong>Ray-finned fish have fins supported by spines; the fins are moved by muscles in the body of the fish that do not extend into the fins. They (usually) have a pair of pectoral fins and a pair of pelvic fins, along with dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, and most look like, well, a fish — their bodies are oval-ish and tapered at each end. They breathe primarily through gills. And they have a <em>lateral line</em> — a row of organs that sense changes in water pressure, movement, and vibrations (kind of like the sensitive hairs in our inner ears) which helps them find prey and not become prey themselves.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lobe-finned fish:</strong> Lobe-finned fish have rounded fins (shaped more like your earlobes), which are supported by muscles and articulated bones (bones that meet to form joints). In other words, their fins are more like hands than typical fish fins, though the end of each fin has thin, bony structures that fan out from the core of the fin. These fins are thought to be the precursors of amphibian legs and feet. Lobe-finned fish also have two dorsal fins (instead of one), and they have both gills and lungs (though they’re not functional in certain species), which enables some of them to breathe on land or under water.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284318\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284318\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-ray-vs-lobed-finned.jpg\" alt=\"Ray-finned and lobe-finned fish compared.\" width=\"350\" height=\"600\" /> Ray-finned and lobe-finned fish compared.[/caption]\r\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">As your mother told you when you experienced your first heartbreak, there’s always more fish in the sea. With bony fish, that means 28,000 species and counting. We can’t possibly cover them all, so we kept this discussion brief by describing the two groups (ray-finned and lobe-finned) and highlighting the common, the cool, and the weird in each group.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731404\"></a>Ray finned</h2>\r\n<em>Actinopterygii</em> (ray-finned fish) are, by far, the largest and most diverse group of bony fish. They include anchovies, angelfish, barracuda, catfish, cod, eels, flounder, flying fish, frogfish, gars, grouper, grunt, halibut, herring, hogfish, jacks, lionfish, mackerel, marlin, minnows, mullet, needlefish, perch, piranha, pompano, porgy, sailfish, sardines, sea bass, sea trout, seahorses, shad, sheepshead, snappers, snook, sole, sturgeon, swordfish, tarpon, triggerfish, toothfish, tuna . . . we could go on but we think you get the idea.\r\n\r\nBut let’s look at some notable members of the group. Imagine an award show with categories for the smallest, biggest, fastest, and so on:\r\n\r\n<strong>Smallest: </strong>Stout infantfish are barely as long as the width of a pencil — females max out at about 8.4 millimeters long, while males grow to only 7 millimeters. They’re also the smallest and lightest of all known vertebrates. If you ordered a pound of stout infantfish from the menu, you’d get a plate of roughly 500,000 fish!\r\n\r\n<strong>Largest: </strong>The sunfish (Mola Mola) can grow to be over 2,268 kilograms (5,000 pounds). They live in warm water and look like a swimming fish head that has been smushed.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284316\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284316\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-sunfish.jpg\" alt=\"a sunfish\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Keith Ellenbogen—www.keithellenbogen.com<br /><br />A sunfish.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Fastest:</strong> The black marlin has been clocked at a maximum speed of about 129 kilometers per hour (about 80 mph).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284315\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284315\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-striped-marlin.jpg\" alt=\"striped marlin\" width=\"556\" height=\"352\" /> Source: Pier Nirandara—www.piernirandara.com<br /><br />A striped marlin feeding on a bait ball.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Longest:</strong> The giant oarfish is a long serpent-looking pelagic fish up to eight meters (26 feet) long. They’re silver with a red mohawk looking fin. They cherish their privacy and are rarely seen alive.\r\n\r\n<strong>Coolest:</strong> The Antarctic icefish lacks hemoglobin in its blood, making it clear and less susceptible to freezing, sort of like anti-freeze, which is useful for any fish living in the frigid waters off Antarctica. Due to this lack of hemoglobin, they have huge hearts and almost four times the amount of blood as other fish.\r\n\r\n<strong>Weirdest couple: </strong>Female anglerfish have it going on! Living in the dark, deep <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/environmental-science/oceans-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\">ocean</a>, these ladies have a dangling dorsal fin tipped with luminescent skin, which functions as a fishing rod protruding from the center of their head ending in a glow-in-the-dark lure just in front of their huge mouth full of teeth. And she has all the guys attached at the hip, seriously. Male anglerfish are usually much smaller than the females. When a male finds one of these lovely ladies, he attaches himself to her as a permanent parasite. After a while, he loses his eyes and all his organs except his testes, physically fusing his body with hers. Talk about a Stage 4 clinger! Females can carry around multiple mates.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284314\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284314\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-anglerfish.jpg\" alt=\"anglerfish\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, L. Madin – www.whoi.edu<br /><br />A female anglerfish—notice its “fishing pole” appendage is angled backward.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Cutest:</strong> Seahorses get by on their looks. Remember when we said most ray-finned fish look like fish? Well, seahorses are one of those exceptions. They swim around upright with what looks like a little armored body and quick moving fins. They have a tubular snout used for eating plankton and fish larvae. And it’s the male seahorses that carry around the fertilized eggs in a special pouch until they hatch — how adorable is that?!\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284313\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284313\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-sea-horse.jpg\" alt=\"sea horse\" width=\"400\" height=\"600\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />Sea horses are the cutest critters and pygmy seahorses are the cutest of the cute.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Father of the year:</strong> Speaking of caring fathers, the jawfish is a paternal mouthbrooder, meaning he holds the fertilized eggs in his mouth till they hatch (see the following figure). Every so often, he spits them out, a practice called <em>churning</em>, which keeps the eggs aerated, hydrated, and clean, thereby increasing the chances that more will hatch. All the while, he doesn’t eat a thing. Fortunately for him, the incubation period for the eggs is only five to seven days.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284312\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284312\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-jawfish.jpg\" alt=\"jawfish\" width=\"556\" height=\"517\" /> Source: Tracy Candish—https://www.flickr.com/photos/[email protected]/33874845733<br /><br />Mr. Mom, the jawfish, incubating the fertilized eggs.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Friendliest:</strong> Yep, fish can be friendly, and a perfect example is the grouper. Because of their large size (the goliath grouper can grow to be almost 800 pounds), these fish are not really scared of anything and are naturally curious. We have had many encounters with grouper fish over the years, and honestly, they are the Golden Retrievers of the sea. The grouper in the following figure actually took Ashlan on a tour of his home, following her along her entire dive and nudging her when she wasn’t paying him enough attention.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284311\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284311\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-grouper.jpg\" alt=\"Nassau grouper\" width=\"556\" height=\"313\" /> Source: Ashlan Cousteau<br /><br />Ashlan and a Nassau grouper.[/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Longest living:</strong> Orange roughy, brightly colored and slow moving, can live up to 200 years — that is, unless they’re eaten (by us). The problem with eating orange roughy is that they don’t reach sexual maturity until the age of 20, so they’re <em>exceedingly</em> susceptible to over-fishing, and they’re caught using the super destructive fishing method of bottom trawling. If you need another reason not to eat them, they’re often full of heavy metals, such as mercury, because they live a long time and bio-magnify toxins into their tissue. So next time you are at a restaurant and they offer you orange roughy as a special, just say no and feel free to tell the waiter (and the chef) why. Honestly, most people, even in restaurants, don’t know how bad and destructive catching some of these fish is. A little schooling goes a long way.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731405\"></a>Lobe-finned</h2>\r\n<em>Sarcopterygii </em>(lobe-finned fish) are a group of only eight living species with lobe-shaped fins, two dorsal fins, gills, and lungs (which aren’t functional in certain species). They’re broken down into two classes — coelacanths and lungfish.\r\n<h3>Coelacanths</h3>\r\nThought to have gone extinct 66 million years ago with the dinos, a coelacanth was spotted at a fish market in 1938. Two extant (living) species are now recognized — the West Indian Ocean coelacanth and Indonesian coelacanth. Referred to as a living fossil, many scientists see them as a possible link between sea creatures and four-legged land animals, such as salamanders, newts, and lizards. Living as deep as 2,000 feet, these carnivorous fish sleep in caves during the day and hunt for prey (mostly octopus, squid, and cuttlefish) at night. They grow to be about 6 feet long and weigh up to about 200 pounds.\r\n\r\nIn 2010, Laurent Ballesta led a confidential Gombessa expedition in Jesser Canyon, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, to capture the very first pictures of the coelacanth taken by a diver (–120 meters). This was possible thanks to the South African diver Peter Timm, who was the first to face the mythical fish locally named Gombessa. Discover more in the book, <em><a href=\"https://laurentballesta.com/\">Gombessa, Meeting with the Coelacanth</a></em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284310\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284310\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-gombessa.jpg\" alt=\"Gombessa\" width=\"556\" height=\"370\" /> Source: Laurent Ballesta<br /><br />Gombessa, the local name for the South African coelacanth.[/caption]\r\n\r\nCoelacanths have lungs during their embryonic development that stop developing as the fish grows and are barely noticeable (and non-functioning) in adults. They also have a <em>rostral organ</em> in their snout that’s part of an electro-sensory system and a hinged skull that enables the back of the skull to tilt up to enlarge the opening of the mouth.\r\n<h3>Lungfish</h3>\r\nAs their name implies, lungfish can breathe air. Yep, they have either one or two lungs (depending on the species) to extract oxygen from the air, and they also have gills to extract oxygen from water. These are freshwater fish that live in rivers and lakes in Australia, Africa, and South America. And they’re big — most species growing up to 1.2 to 2.1 meters (4 to 7 feet) long. Lungfish have horrible eye sight, but their great sense of smell, lateral lines, and sensitive touch (with their pectoral and pelvic fins) make up for it. African lungfish can also go into a deep sleep (<em>estivation</em>) for up to two years — a slimy sleeping beauty.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":34394,"name":"Ashlan Cousteau","slug":"ashlan-cousteau","description":"Ashlan Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and journalist with a passion for adventure. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34394"}},{"authorId":34395,"name":"Philippe Cousteau","slug":"philippe-cousteau","description":"Philippe Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and author with a passion for adventure. He is the founder of EarthEcho International, a leading global voice for ocean conservation. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34395"}},{"authorId":8993,"name":"Joseph Kraynak","slug":"joseph-kraynak","description":"Joseph Kraynak is a writer who's contributed to several Dummies books, including Flipping Houses For Dummies, Oceans For Dummies, and Selling on Amazon For Dummies.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8993"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Ray finned","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Lobe-finned","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":284296,"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284296"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}},{"articleId":284273,"title":"Gastropods: Putting Their One Foot Forward","slug":"gastropods-putting-their-one-foot-forward","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284273"}},{"articleId":284264,"title":"3 Ocean Ecosystems: Kelp Forests, Sargasso Sea, Seagrass Meadows","slug":"3-ocean-ecosystems-kelp-forests-sargasso-sea-seagrass-meadows","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284264"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb0f79b63\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;environmental-science&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[null]}]\" id=\"du-slot-6217bb0f7a4c2\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Explore","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":null,"dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":284309},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2021-04-20T16:16:22+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-04-20T16:16:22+00:00","timestamp":"2022-02-24T17:06:23+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays","strippedTitle":"elasmobranchii: sharks, skates, and rays","slug":"elasmobranchii-sharks-skates-and-rays","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Sharks, skates, and rays are some of the most misunderstood and maligned creatures in the world. Learn more about these ocean predators.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"<em>Elasmobranchii</em> (pronounced <em>ee-laz-mo-brank-ee-ee</em>) are a familiar subclass of fish that includes some of the most misunderstood and maligned creatures in the world—sharks, skates, and rays. They’re characterized by a rigid dorsal fin (the top fin) and have four to seven pairs of gill slits to breathe.\r\n\r\nThey’re all carnivorous, feeding on everything from large marine mammals to small crustaceans, and they lack a swim bladder, equipped instead with an oily liver to maintain buoyancy. In contrast to the teeth of most vertebrates, which are locked into sockets in the jaw bones, elasmobranch teeth are attached to the jaw with fleshy tissue. Many species have rows of teeth that continue to be replaced—some may go through as many as tens of thousands of teeth in a lifetime.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731399\"></a>Selachiia: Sharks</h2>\r\nSharks go way back. The first evidence of sharks dates to the Ordovician period 400 to 450 million years ago! Approximately 450 species of fish have the honor of being classified as sharks, and they range in size from about 20 centimeters (eight inches) to 12 meters (40 feet) long. They’re all predators and feed mostly on fish, seals, and whales, but some sharks, such as the whale sharks and megamouth sharks, feed on tiny plankton.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Baby sharks are called “pups,” but even before they’re born, they’re not all sweet and cuddly. Some baby sharks eat their brothers and sisters who are growing slower while still inside their mother (talk about sibling rivalry!). Other species of sharks create extra eggs for the growing pups to consume. Both are examples of intrauterine cannibalism. Some scientists believe this practice is “survival of the fittest” to keep the species strong.</p>\r\nThe smallest of sharks is the dwarf lantern shark. Lantern sharks, as their name implies, are bioluminescent—able to produce their own light, which they use to ward off predators, blend in with the lighter background above them, and communicate when swimming in schools.\r\n\r\nOn the other end of the size spectrum is the whale shark, which can grow as long as 40 feet and weigh up to 40 tons (see the following figure). While this whale shark could easily gulp down prey larger than humans, it prefers feeding on tiny plankton. So, the biggest fish in the sea eats some of the smallest food.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284306\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284306\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-whale-shark.jpg\" alt=\"whale shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The largest fish in the sea, the whale shark, followed by a diver about to attach a satellite tag to monitor the animal’s movements for research.[/caption]\r\n\r\nBull sharks, so named because of their short, blunt snout, wide body, and aggressive temperament (and because they often head-butt their prey before eating them), are unique in that they can live in freshwater or marine environments, sometimes swimming far upstream into a river or tributary (see the following figure). Among sharks, they pose perhaps the most serious threat to humans mostly because they like to swim in the same places humans do, not because they find humans particularly tasty.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284304\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284304\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-bull-shark.jpg\" alt=\"bull shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"298\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The bull shark — saltwater, freshwater, no problem. (This photo is from our friend Michael Muller who adds a little artistic flair to his photographs, which helps illustrate the beauty and drama of these fantastic creatures.)[/caption]\r\n\r\nMako sharks (see the following figure) are perhaps the fastest of the species and one of the fastest fish on the planet, attaining speeds of up to 74 kilometers (45 miles) per hour, fast enough to chase down its favorite food — the speedy tuna.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284303\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284303\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-mako-shark.jpg\" alt=\"mako shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"357\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The mako shark is known for its speed and athleticism.[/caption]\r\n\r\nThe hammerhead shark gets the award for being the weirdest looking with an eye on either end of its mallet-shaped head. They feed mostly on small fish, octopus, squid, and crustaceans and can grow up to six meters (20 feet) long and weigh as much as 450 kilograms (about 1,000 pounds). Depending on the species, they are either solitary or school in enormous numbers.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284302\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284302\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-great-hammerhead.jpg\" alt=\"great hammerhead\" width=\"556\" height=\"375\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />A lone great hammerhead shark (better to see you with, my dear).[/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284301\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284301\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-hammerhead-school.jpg\" alt=\"hammerhead school\" width=\"556\" height=\"427\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />Schooling hammerheads.[/caption]\r\n\r\nNo section on sharks would be complete without mention of the baddest shark prowling the <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/environmental-science/oceans-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\">ocean</a>s — the great white shark, which can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet) long and weigh more than 2.5 tons (see the following figure). They have a varied diet of fish, crustaceans, seals, sea lions, other sharks, and even small-toothed whales such as orcas. Where do they live? Wherever they want. But seriously, you can bump into one just about anywhere the water temperature is between 12 and 24 degrees Celsius (54 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284300\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284300\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-great-white.jpg\" alt=\"great white shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The great white shark.[/caption]\r\n\r\nSome people are terrified of sharks and won’t even take a dip in the ocean because of them, but we love sharks. I (Ashlan) am particularly fond of them for their beauty, size, power, athleticism, diversity, and for all they do to keep our oceans healthy. We really want you to love and respect them, too . . . and, if you fear them, to stop being afraid. Sharks have far more reason to fear (and hate) us humans than we have to fear them.\r\n\r\nYes, <em>Jaws </em>scared the “carp” out of all of us, and to his dying day Peter Benchley (who wrote the book) felt horrible for this. He later became a huge shark activist, but the damage had been done. Generations of readers and moviegoers were scared out of their swimsuits of sharks, especially the great white, and unnecessarily so.\r\n\r\nSharks are not vicious murderers just waiting for you to wade past the buoys or paddle your surfboard or paddleboard overhead. Certainly, some animals kill for fun — namely dolphins, house cats, killer whales, leopards, honey badgers, and, of course, humans. But the vast majority of predators, including sharks, eat only when necessary. And, like many predators, sharks carefully calculate their return on investment—whether they’ll expend more energy attacking a healthy surfer or an injured seal, for example. That’s why sharks smell for blood. They’re on the prowl for the wounded and the sick, and they can go long stretches without eating, so they can afford to be picky eaters and wait for the right opportunity to come along. Nothing personal, but you’re not the first choice on their menu. In fact, scientists believe that shark attacks happen as a case of mistaken identity. Sharks can only tell what you are with their mouth (no hands to feel ya with) which is why most attacks are a single bite and release and thus not usually fatal. The sharks quickly realize that you aren’t their normal prey and they move on.\r\n\r\nStill afraid? Then check out the following table to put your chances of dying from a shark attack in perspective.\r\n<table width=\"517\"><caption><strong>Gauging the Risk of Death from Shark Attack</strong></caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\"><strong>Cause of death</strong></td>\r\n<td width=\"258\"><strong>Average annual deaths in the U.S.</strong></td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Car accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">44,757</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Gun deaths</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">36,000</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Accidental poisoning</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">19,456</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Falling</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">17,229</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Bike accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">762</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Air/space accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">742</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Excessive cold</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">620</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Sun/heat exposure</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">273</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Bee, wasp, hornet stings</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">62</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Lightning</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">47</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Train accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">24</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Dog attack</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">16</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Fireworks</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">11</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Spider bite</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">7</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Snake bite</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">5</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Shark attack</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">1</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n</tbody>\r\n</table>\r\nNot only are sharks much less dangerous than many people think, they also play a vital role in maintaining a healthy ocean. As apex predators, they keep the population of their prey in check, strengthen the gene pools of their prey, and reduce the spread of disease by eating the sick, weak, and injured. Lions, tigers, bears, and other apex predators perform the same service, but they don’t get the horrible rap that sharks do (and they also attack people every once in a while, just sayin’). Sharks also protect plants and help preserve plant-based ecosystems by reducing the populations of the animals that graze on those plants. And they do their part to sequester carbon.\r\n\r\nPhilippe and I swim with all types of sharks all over the world. From dozens of Great Whites off Mexico, swarms of Grey Reef Sharks in the Marshall Islands, to Whale Sharks in La Paz and huge Great Hammerheads in the Bahamas — never once have we felt scared or threatened. But we are always cautious and respectful when we’re in the water with these extraordinary predators. The ocean is their home, not ours.\r\n\r\nUnfortunately, every year, sharks are killed for their fins and their meat — about 100 million a year (but that number could actually be anywhere between 63 million and 273 million sharks killed each year). On average, that means about 11,400 sharks are slaughtered every hour, whereas four people in the whole entire world die from shark attacks per year on average. Sharks have far more to fear than we do.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731400\"></a>Batoidea: Rays</h2>\r\nRays are a group of about 500 species that live in ocean waters worldwide. They look like a shark that has been smushed into a pancake in the outline of a kite (see the following figure). While sharks propel themselves with their tail, rays propel themselves with elongated wing-like pectoral fins. Some rays have a whip-like tail tipped with a venomous barb. A ray’s mouth is usually on the underside of its body and, when viewed from certain angles, looks as though it’s smiling. Instead of pointy teeth like sharks, rays have evolved rounded teeth they use to crush and grind their prey, mostly mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284299\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284299\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-stingray.jpg\" alt=\"stingray\" width=\"556\" height=\"355\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />A stingray.[/caption]\r\n\r\nAnother difference from sharks is that rays have their gill slits underneath their body as opposed to the sides and take in water to breathe through large openings (spiracles) on the upper surface of the head. In addition, most rays have their eyes on top of their head. Most are benthic (bottom dwelling) but some species such as the manta ray are epipelagic (free swimming). Like sharks, males have a clasper they use to mate with the female which then almost exclusively gives birth to live young. Finally, rays are almost all marine.\r\n\r\nRays are a diverse group that includes electric rays, stingrays, manta rays, and more. In this section, we cover a few of our favorites.\r\n\r\nElectric rays have a rounded body and range in length from less than 30 centimeters (1 foot) to about 2 meters (6 feet). They’re equipped with two large electric organs positioned on either side of their head that are capable of delivering a 220-volt shock — more than sufficient for stunning prey and fending off predators. They generally feed on small fish and invertebrates, so you’re pretty safe unless you happen to step on one.\r\n\r\nThe largest ray is the giant manta ray, shown in the following figure, which has a “wingspan” of up to nearly 9 meters (30 feet). They’re commonly referred to as “devil rays” because of the two special flaps at the front of their heads called <em>cephalic lobes</em>, but devil rays are very sweet. They feed mostly on plankton, using those devilish horns to direct more water and food into their mouths.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284298\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284298\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-manta-ray.jpg\" alt=\"manta ray\" width=\"556\" height=\"425\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />A manta ray, sometimes called a devil ray.[/caption]\r\n\r\nEagle rays have beautiful spotted skin that produce the appearance of dappled sunlight as they swim through the water. Unlike most rays, they have a very long pronounced tail and have been known to launch themselves out of the water in dramatic displays, spinning and flipping in the air.\r\n\r\nLast on our list of rays is the most unique of the group—the sawfish, also referred to as a carpenter fish. Granted, it looks more like a shark, but its mouth and gills are positioned on its underside, and it has wing-like fins characteristic of a ray. Its coolest feature is its long snout rimmed with exposed teeth.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731401\"></a>Batoidea: Skates</h2>\r\nSkates are members of the same subclass as rays, and they look like rays, but they have a few key differences. While rays are more diamond shaped, a skate’s body is more triangular or rounded, and they often have a pointy nose. Skates also have thicker, wider tails with sharp spikes that run along the middle of the tail and up their backs (no barb at the tip). Skates have small teeth to eat prey, in contrast to the rounded teeth rays use to crush and grind their food. While rays swim in both shallow and open water, skates typically hang out near the bottom and often hide in the sand. Also, instead of live births, skates lay eggs in a leathery case called a <em>mermaid’s purse</em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284297\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284297\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-skate.jpg\" alt=\"male skate\" width=\"556\" height=\"313\" /> Source: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, Gulf of Mexico 2018 - https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/image-gallery/welcome.html#cbpi=/okeanos/explorations/ex1803/dailyupdates/media/apr16-1.html <br /><br />A male skate.[/caption]\r\n\r\nUnfortunately, skates are struggling to survive. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed the common skate as an endangered species in 2000 and as a critically endangered species since 2006.","description":"<em>Elasmobranchii</em> (pronounced <em>ee-laz-mo-brank-ee-ee</em>) are a familiar subclass of fish that includes some of the most misunderstood and maligned creatures in the world—sharks, skates, and rays. They’re characterized by a rigid dorsal fin (the top fin) and have four to seven pairs of gill slits to breathe.\r\n\r\nThey’re all carnivorous, feeding on everything from large marine mammals to small crustaceans, and they lack a swim bladder, equipped instead with an oily liver to maintain buoyancy. In contrast to the teeth of most vertebrates, which are locked into sockets in the jaw bones, elasmobranch teeth are attached to the jaw with fleshy tissue. Many species have rows of teeth that continue to be replaced—some may go through as many as tens of thousands of teeth in a lifetime.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731399\"></a>Selachiia: Sharks</h2>\r\nSharks go way back. The first evidence of sharks dates to the Ordovician period 400 to 450 million years ago! Approximately 450 species of fish have the honor of being classified as sharks, and they range in size from about 20 centimeters (eight inches) to 12 meters (40 feet) long. They’re all predators and feed mostly on fish, seals, and whales, but some sharks, such as the whale sharks and megamouth sharks, feed on tiny plankton.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">Baby sharks are called “pups,” but even before they’re born, they’re not all sweet and cuddly. Some baby sharks eat their brothers and sisters who are growing slower while still inside their mother (talk about sibling rivalry!). Other species of sharks create extra eggs for the growing pups to consume. Both are examples of intrauterine cannibalism. Some scientists believe this practice is “survival of the fittest” to keep the species strong.</p>\r\nThe smallest of sharks is the dwarf lantern shark. Lantern sharks, as their name implies, are bioluminescent—able to produce their own light, which they use to ward off predators, blend in with the lighter background above them, and communicate when swimming in schools.\r\n\r\nOn the other end of the size spectrum is the whale shark, which can grow as long as 40 feet and weigh up to 40 tons (see the following figure). While this whale shark could easily gulp down prey larger than humans, it prefers feeding on tiny plankton. So, the biggest fish in the sea eats some of the smallest food.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284306\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284306\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-whale-shark.jpg\" alt=\"whale shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The largest fish in the sea, the whale shark, followed by a diver about to attach a satellite tag to monitor the animal’s movements for research.[/caption]\r\n\r\nBull sharks, so named because of their short, blunt snout, wide body, and aggressive temperament (and because they often head-butt their prey before eating them), are unique in that they can live in freshwater or marine environments, sometimes swimming far upstream into a river or tributary (see the following figure). Among sharks, they pose perhaps the most serious threat to humans mostly because they like to swim in the same places humans do, not because they find humans particularly tasty.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284304\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284304\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-bull-shark.jpg\" alt=\"bull shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"298\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The bull shark — saltwater, freshwater, no problem. (This photo is from our friend Michael Muller who adds a little artistic flair to his photographs, which helps illustrate the beauty and drama of these fantastic creatures.)[/caption]\r\n\r\nMako sharks (see the following figure) are perhaps the fastest of the species and one of the fastest fish on the planet, attaining speeds of up to 74 kilometers (45 miles) per hour, fast enough to chase down its favorite food — the speedy tuna.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284303\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284303\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-mako-shark.jpg\" alt=\"mako shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"357\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The mako shark is known for its speed and athleticism.[/caption]\r\n\r\nThe hammerhead shark gets the award for being the weirdest looking with an eye on either end of its mallet-shaped head. They feed mostly on small fish, octopus, squid, and crustaceans and can grow up to six meters (20 feet) long and weigh as much as 450 kilograms (about 1,000 pounds). Depending on the species, they are either solitary or school in enormous numbers.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284302\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284302\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-great-hammerhead.jpg\" alt=\"great hammerhead\" width=\"556\" height=\"375\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />A lone great hammerhead shark (better to see you with, my dear).[/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284301\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284301\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-hammerhead-school.jpg\" alt=\"hammerhead school\" width=\"556\" height=\"427\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />Schooling hammerheads.[/caption]\r\n\r\nNo section on sharks would be complete without mention of the baddest shark prowling the <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/environmental-science/oceans-for-dummies-cheat-sheet/\">ocean</a>s — the great white shark, which can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet) long and weigh more than 2.5 tons (see the following figure). They have a varied diet of fish, crustaceans, seals, sea lions, other sharks, and even small-toothed whales such as orcas. Where do they live? Wherever they want. But seriously, you can bump into one just about anywhere the water temperature is between 12 and 24 degrees Celsius (54 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284300\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284300\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-great-white.jpg\" alt=\"great white shark\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Michael Muller—www.mullerphoto.com<br /><br />The great white shark.[/caption]\r\n\r\nSome people are terrified of sharks and won’t even take a dip in the ocean because of them, but we love sharks. I (Ashlan) am particularly fond of them for their beauty, size, power, athleticism, diversity, and for all they do to keep our oceans healthy. We really want you to love and respect them, too . . . and, if you fear them, to stop being afraid. Sharks have far more reason to fear (and hate) us humans than we have to fear them.\r\n\r\nYes, <em>Jaws </em>scared the “carp” out of all of us, and to his dying day Peter Benchley (who wrote the book) felt horrible for this. He later became a huge shark activist, but the damage had been done. Generations of readers and moviegoers were scared out of their swimsuits of sharks, especially the great white, and unnecessarily so.\r\n\r\nSharks are not vicious murderers just waiting for you to wade past the buoys or paddle your surfboard or paddleboard overhead. Certainly, some animals kill for fun — namely dolphins, house cats, killer whales, leopards, honey badgers, and, of course, humans. But the vast majority of predators, including sharks, eat only when necessary. And, like many predators, sharks carefully calculate their return on investment—whether they’ll expend more energy attacking a healthy surfer or an injured seal, for example. That’s why sharks smell for blood. They’re on the prowl for the wounded and the sick, and they can go long stretches without eating, so they can afford to be picky eaters and wait for the right opportunity to come along. Nothing personal, but you’re not the first choice on their menu. In fact, scientists believe that shark attacks happen as a case of mistaken identity. Sharks can only tell what you are with their mouth (no hands to feel ya with) which is why most attacks are a single bite and release and thus not usually fatal. The sharks quickly realize that you aren’t their normal prey and they move on.\r\n\r\nStill afraid? Then check out the following table to put your chances of dying from a shark attack in perspective.\r\n<table width=\"517\"><caption><strong>Gauging the Risk of Death from Shark Attack</strong></caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\"><strong>Cause of death</strong></td>\r\n<td width=\"258\"><strong>Average annual deaths in the U.S.</strong></td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Car accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">44,757</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Gun deaths</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">36,000</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Accidental poisoning</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">19,456</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Falling</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">17,229</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Bike accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">762</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Air/space accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">742</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Excessive cold</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">620</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Sun/heat exposure</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">273</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Bee, wasp, hornet stings</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">62</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Lightning</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">47</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Train accident</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">24</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Dog attack</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">16</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Fireworks</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">11</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Spider bite</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">7</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Snake bite</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">5</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"258\">Shark attack</td>\r\n<td width=\"258\">1</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n</tbody>\r\n</table>\r\nNot only are sharks much less dangerous than many people think, they also play a vital role in maintaining a healthy ocean. As apex predators, they keep the population of their prey in check, strengthen the gene pools of their prey, and reduce the spread of disease by eating the sick, weak, and injured. Lions, tigers, bears, and other apex predators perform the same service, but they don’t get the horrible rap that sharks do (and they also attack people every once in a while, just sayin’). Sharks also protect plants and help preserve plant-based ecosystems by reducing the populations of the animals that graze on those plants. And they do their part to sequester carbon.\r\n\r\nPhilippe and I swim with all types of sharks all over the world. From dozens of Great Whites off Mexico, swarms of Grey Reef Sharks in the Marshall Islands, to Whale Sharks in La Paz and huge Great Hammerheads in the Bahamas — never once have we felt scared or threatened. But we are always cautious and respectful when we’re in the water with these extraordinary predators. The ocean is their home, not ours.\r\n\r\nUnfortunately, every year, sharks are killed for their fins and their meat — about 100 million a year (but that number could actually be anywhere between 63 million and 273 million sharks killed each year). On average, that means about 11,400 sharks are slaughtered every hour, whereas four people in the whole entire world die from shark attacks per year on average. Sharks have far more to fear than we do.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731400\"></a>Batoidea: Rays</h2>\r\nRays are a group of about 500 species that live in ocean waters worldwide. They look like a shark that has been smushed into a pancake in the outline of a kite (see the following figure). While sharks propel themselves with their tail, rays propel themselves with elongated wing-like pectoral fins. Some rays have a whip-like tail tipped with a venomous barb. A ray’s mouth is usually on the underside of its body and, when viewed from certain angles, looks as though it’s smiling. Instead of pointy teeth like sharks, rays have evolved rounded teeth they use to crush and grind their prey, mostly mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284299\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284299\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-stingray.jpg\" alt=\"stingray\" width=\"556\" height=\"355\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />A stingray.[/caption]\r\n\r\nAnother difference from sharks is that rays have their gill slits underneath their body as opposed to the sides and take in water to breathe through large openings (spiracles) on the upper surface of the head. In addition, most rays have their eyes on top of their head. Most are benthic (bottom dwelling) but some species such as the manta ray are epipelagic (free swimming). Like sharks, males have a clasper they use to mate with the female which then almost exclusively gives birth to live young. Finally, rays are almost all marine.\r\n\r\nRays are a diverse group that includes electric rays, stingrays, manta rays, and more. In this section, we cover a few of our favorites.\r\n\r\nElectric rays have a rounded body and range in length from less than 30 centimeters (1 foot) to about 2 meters (6 feet). They’re equipped with two large electric organs positioned on either side of their head that are capable of delivering a 220-volt shock — more than sufficient for stunning prey and fending off predators. They generally feed on small fish and invertebrates, so you’re pretty safe unless you happen to step on one.\r\n\r\nThe largest ray is the giant manta ray, shown in the following figure, which has a “wingspan” of up to nearly 9 meters (30 feet). They’re commonly referred to as “devil rays” because of the two special flaps at the front of their heads called <em>cephalic lobes</em>, but devil rays are very sweet. They feed mostly on plankton, using those devilish horns to direct more water and food into their mouths.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284298\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284298\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-manta-ray.jpg\" alt=\"manta ray\" width=\"556\" height=\"425\" /> Source: Cesere Brothers—www.ceserebrothers.com<br /><br />A manta ray, sometimes called a devil ray.[/caption]\r\n\r\nEagle rays have beautiful spotted skin that produce the appearance of dappled sunlight as they swim through the water. Unlike most rays, they have a very long pronounced tail and have been known to launch themselves out of the water in dramatic displays, spinning and flipping in the air.\r\n\r\nLast on our list of rays is the most unique of the group—the sawfish, also referred to as a carpenter fish. Granted, it looks more like a shark, but its mouth and gills are positioned on its underside, and it has wing-like fins characteristic of a ray. Its coolest feature is its long snout rimmed with exposed teeth.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" ><a name=\"_Toc48731401\"></a>Batoidea: Skates</h2>\r\nSkates are members of the same subclass as rays, and they look like rays, but they have a few key differences. While rays are more diamond shaped, a skate’s body is more triangular or rounded, and they often have a pointy nose. Skates also have thicker, wider tails with sharp spikes that run along the middle of the tail and up their backs (no barb at the tip). Skates have small teeth to eat prey, in contrast to the rounded teeth rays use to crush and grind their food. While rays swim in both shallow and open water, skates typically hang out near the bottom and often hide in the sand. Also, instead of live births, skates lay eggs in a leathery case called a <em>mermaid’s purse</em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284297\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284297\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-skate.jpg\" alt=\"male skate\" width=\"556\" height=\"313\" /> Source: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, Gulf of Mexico 2018 - https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/image-gallery/welcome.html#cbpi=/okeanos/explorations/ex1803/dailyupdates/media/apr16-1.html <br /><br />A male skate.[/caption]\r\n\r\nUnfortunately, skates are struggling to survive. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed the common skate as an endangered species in 2000 and as a critically endangered species since 2006.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":34394,"name":"Ashlan Cousteau","slug":"ashlan-cousteau","description":"Ashlan Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and journalist with a passion for adventure. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34394"}},{"authorId":34395,"name":"Philippe Cousteau","slug":"philippe-cousteau","description":"Philippe Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and author with a passion for adventure. He is the founder of EarthEcho International, a leading global voice for ocean conservation. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34395"}},{"authorId":8993,"name":"Joseph Kraynak","slug":"joseph-kraynak","description":"Joseph Kraynak is a writer who's contributed to several Dummies books, including Flipping Houses For Dummies, Oceans For Dummies, and Selling on Amazon For Dummies.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8993"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Selachiia: Sharks","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Batoidea: Rays","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Batoidea: Skates","target":"#tab3"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":284309,"title":"Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!","slug":"check-out-the-bones-on-those-osteichthyes","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284309"}},{"articleId":284288,"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284288"}},{"articleId":284282,"title":"Bivalves: Parts One and Two","slug":"bivalves-parts-one-and-two","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284282"}},{"articleId":284273,"title":"Gastropods: Putting Their One Foot Forward","slug":"gastropods-putting-their-one-foot-forward","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284273"}},{"articleId":284264,"title":"3 Ocean Ecosystems: Kelp Forests, Sargasso Sea, Seagrass Meadows","slug":"3-ocean-ecosystems-kelp-forests-sargasso-sea-seagrass-meadows","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","environmental-science"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/284264"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":0,"slug":null,"isbn":null,"categoryList":null,"amazon":null,"image":null,"title":null,"testBankPinActivationLink":null,"bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":null,"authors":null,"_links":null},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = 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Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Environmental Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"},"slug":"environmental-science","categoryId":33763}],"title":"Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest","strippedTitle":"cephalopods: head and tentacles above the rest","slug":"cephalopods-head-and-tentacles-above-the-rest","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Explore the world of cephalopods—octopus and squid, and their close cousins, the nautilus and cuttlefish.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"While <em>gastropod </em>means stomach on a foot, <em>cephalopod </em>means head on a foot, but with these mollusks, the <em>pod</em> (foot) has evolved into many prehensile arms/tentacles, which may be equipped with suction cups, hooks, or gooey mucus to catch prey and perform other functions. Yes, we’re talking octopus and squid, and their close cousins, the nautilus and cuttlefish. Most cephalopods have eight to ten arms, but some (such as the nautilus) have as many as 90. Now that’s a lot of handwashing!\r\n\r\nIf you look at a bivalve and a cephalopod side by side, you’d never imagine they were in the same family. Not even close! Every cephalopod has a sophisticated brain, three hearts, good eyesight, a system of jet propulsion, prehensile arms, a sharp beak, and (in most species) an ink sac for self-defense — whereas a clam is a hunk of flesh sealed in a shell that can attach itself to rocks and sips through a straw.\r\n\r\nMost cephalopods lack the distinct shell that’s characteristic of most mollusks. One exception is the chambered nautilus, which has a well-developed shell with air-filled chambers to keep it afloat. The cuttlefish, which kinda looks like a nautilus without an external shell has an internal, elongated, saucer-shaped shell called a <em>cuttlebone</em>, which is often sold at pet stores as a calcium source for birds (which seems kinda wrong, btw). The squid has a long, thin, internal shell called a <em>pen</em>.\r\n\r\nIn this article, we introduce you to the four most common members of the cephalopod family.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112983\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040902\"></a>Octopi</h2>\r\nIf aliens exist on this planet, they’re octopi or octopuses (both spellings are acceptable, by the way). The octopus is regarded as one of the most intelligent creatures in the sea, and <em>the</em> most intelligent invertebrate on Earth thanks to its large brain. In fact, the brain-to-body ratio of the octopus is the highest of all invertebrates and greater than that of many vertebrates. It even has a group of nerves that act brain-ish for each arm, enabling the octopus to move them independently. The octopus is also a tool user and can learn and remember. (Full disclosure, they’re Philippe’s favorite animal—can you tell?)\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284293\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284293\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-octopus.jpg\" alt=\"an octopus\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Cristina Mittermeier—www.sealegacy.org<br /><br />An octopus.[/caption]\r\n\r\nMoving on to the body, an octopus has eight arms, each of which has two rows of suckers used to capture and hold prey and to stick to smooth surfaces. The arms lead to a skirt, in the middle of which is their mouth (beak). With three hearts, they have lots of love to give. One heart pumps blood through the body, while the two small hearts pump blood to the gills. Their bodies are very malleable, allowing them to squeeze into super tight spaces — as long as their beak fits, they can make it, bringing a whole new meaning to the phrase, “If I fits, I sits.”\r\n\r\nCompared to bivalves, their sex lives are ultra-conservative. Males remain males and females remain females their entire lives. As soon as the male passes sperm to the female to fertilize her eggs, the female becomes a devoted, die-hard mother . . . literally. For example, the giant pacific momma octopus lays her eggs and attentively watches over them, keeping them clean, aerated, and protected for up to ten months, during which time she doesn’t leave and doesn’t eat. She usually dies shortly after her eggs hatch. Octopus fathers don’t fare much better — they often die after mating (talk about deadbeat dads!).\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">An octopus will always beat you at a game of hide and seek. They’re able to change their color and texture to match their surroundings to a T. But the mimic octopus has everyone beat; it can even change its shape to impersonate other creatures such as a flounder, a lionfish, a sea snake, or even a tube worm. Hey, do you guys hire out for parties?</p>\r\nHonestly, we could write an entire chapter or even a whole book about octopi, given how fascinating they are. Just look at how adorable the dumbo octopus is, and the mating ritual of the Argonaut Octopus is something we just can’t talk about in a book for family audiences. So much to say, but so little time.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112984\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040903\"></a>Squid</h2>\r\nSquids look a lot like octopi, but they’re different in many ways, including the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>An octopus is smarter than a squid, but squids are better swimmers.</li>\r\n \t<li>An octopus has a roundish body, rectangular pupils, and eight arms, whereas a squid has a triangular body with a fin on either side, round pupils, eight arms, and two longer tentacles (with suction cups only at the tips).</li>\r\n \t<li>The arms of an octopus are more flexible than those of a squid, enabling them to walk around and to hold and move objects.</li>\r\n \t<li>A squid has a rigid internal structure, called a pen, that runs along its mantle and provides support; an octopus does not.</li>\r\n \t<li>Octopi generally hang out on the seafloor eating crustaceans and other benthic prey, while squid prefer the open ocean, feeding on shrimp and small fish.</li>\r\n \t<li>A squid’s self-defense mechanism involves expelling a cloud of ink that serves as a smoke screen, whereas an octopus relies more on camouflage or squeezing its body into a hollow object or crevice, though in desperate situations, an octopus can ink, too.</li>\r\n \t<li>Octopi reproduce as partners and attend to their eggs for up to a year until they hatch, whereas squids mate in large groups and leave their fertilized eggs attached to rocks or corals to fend for themselves.</li>\r\n \t<li>Octopi are generally solitary, whereas squids may live alone or in groups.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284292\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284292\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-squid.jpg\" alt=\"squid\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Cristina Mittermeier—www.sealegacy.org<br /><br />Squid hatching from clusters of eggs.[/caption]\r\n\r\nSquids range in size from about 16 millimeters (less than one inch, and so cute) up to 22 meters (about 72 feet, and terrifying) when stretched out.\r\n\r\nSome cool species of squid include the glass squid — almost fully transparent except for its eye balls (though its eye lids act as an invisibility cloak); the vampire squid, which can turn itself inside out to avoid predators; and the Humboldt squid, which can pulse its body with flashing red and white bioluminescence. Yowsa!\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Giant squid</h2>\r\nThe giant squid is about eight meters (26 feet) long, but with its tentacles stretched out, it may reach 22 meters (72 feet) in length. These massive creatures live in the deep ocean, and scientists still don’t know much about them. Most of what’s known has been gathered from studying carcasses that have washed up on beaches or been brought in by fishing boats.\r\n\r\nBased on the limited information available, we know that they eat shrimp, fish, and other squids. We also know that they engage in defensive epic battles with whales and sharks (that like to eat squid), based on the fact that whales and sharks have been observed with what look like giant squid hickeys all over them.\r\n\r\nBecause they live in the deep sea, giant squid have giant eyes. We’re talking BIG, as in largest in the animal kingdom — about 10 to 12 inches in diameter (the better to see you with my dear!). Researchers also think that giant squid live only about five years, meaning they must grow like weeds, and that they mate only once, so they’d better make it count.\r\n\r\nHowever, while the giant squid may be the longest, it may not be the largest. The colossal squid is shorter but weighs twice as much. One colossal squid on display at the Ta Papa Museum of New Zealand tips the scales at 490 kilograms (just over 1,080 pounds) while an average Giant Squid weighs in at around 275 kilograms (606 pounds). The beak of the colossal squid is the largest of all among mollusks, and their eyeballs are about the size of soccer balls.\r\n\r\nEven with their massive size, the giant and colossal squid are the preferred prey of the deep diving sperm whale. And (fun job), some scientists study the undigested beaks of these squid in sperm whale stomachs to gather additional information about the species. That would be one colossal and very smelly day at the office.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112985\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040904\"></a>Cuttlefish</h2>\r\nCuttlefish, also known as cuttles (no, not cuddles, although they look kind of cuddly), are sort of a cross between a squid and an octopus but with a more compact body. Like an octopus, a cuttlefish has a big brain and is a master of camouflage. Like a squid, it has eight arms and two longer tentacles and its head and body are tapered, more like a torpedo. Cuttlefish are unique in that they have an undulating fringe running along their sides and a cuttlebone to help with buoyancy, which enables them to hover. Another unique feature is their pupils, shaped like a “W,” which enables them to see in front of and behind them at the same time.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284290\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284290\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-cuttlefish.jpg\" alt=\"cuttlefish\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Conor Goulding, Mote Marine Laboratory<br /><br />Cuttlefish.[/caption]\r\n\r\nThey tend to live in deep water during the winter and in the shallows over the summer months, and they live only one or two years, dying shortly after mating.\r\n\r\nThe Giant Cuttlefish lives in the waters around Australia. These large cuttles can grow to have a mantle length of about 50 centimeters (20 inches) and weigh around nine kilograms (about 20 pounds). That’s a lot to cuddle! They come back every season to the same rocky shores of southern Australia and mate, lay eggs, and then die. When the next generation hatches, they head off into the world (not much is known about where they go or what they do), but they always return to the same area to mate, lay eggs, and perish (cue up “Circle of Life” from <em>The Lion King</em>).\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112986\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040905\"></a>Nautilus</h2>\r\nIf a snail, a shrimp, and an octopus, had a baby together, it would look like a nautilus. The nautilus has a spiraled shell like a snail, but it’s sectioned off into chambers containing air to make the nautilus buoyant, enabling it hover in the water. As the nautilus grows and expands its shell, it creates new chambers. It has a face like a shrimp and arms like an octopus — actually about 90 tentacles that are grooved and secrete mucus to capture food and hold onto stationary objects when resting. Compared to octopi and squid, the nautilus doesn’t have the greatest vision, relying more on their sense of smell to find food.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284289\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284289\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-nautilus.jpg\" alt=\"nautilus\" width=\"556\" height=\"366\" /> Nautilus Macromphalus, depth 110m. Source: Laurent Ballesta—laurentballesta.com<br /><br />A nautilus.[/caption]\r\n\r\nThey’re nocturnal (active at night), making daily migrations up and down the water column. They live much longer than the other cephalopods (up to 20 years). Unfortunately, their shells are highly prized and because they don’t reach sexually maturity until they’re 10 to 15 years old (and even when they do, females lay only about ten eggs max), their population has declined significantly and will require a long time to bounce back. And because they need a hard shell to survive, they’re also threatened by ocean acidification. Thankfully, they’re a protected species, though poaching still happens.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">The nautilus is considered a living fossil, because it has changed very little over the 500 million years it has been around (in some form). Today, they live in the waters of the Indo-Pacific, hovering above reefs at depths of about 100 to 300 meters (330 to 990 feet). They can’t go much deeper, because the pressure would crush their air-filled shells. Not a good way to go.</p>","description":"While <em>gastropod </em>means stomach on a foot, <em>cephalopod </em>means head on a foot, but with these mollusks, the <em>pod</em> (foot) has evolved into many prehensile arms/tentacles, which may be equipped with suction cups, hooks, or gooey mucus to catch prey and perform other functions. Yes, we’re talking octopus and squid, and their close cousins, the nautilus and cuttlefish. Most cephalopods have eight to ten arms, but some (such as the nautilus) have as many as 90. Now that’s a lot of handwashing!\r\n\r\nIf you look at a bivalve and a cephalopod side by side, you’d never imagine they were in the same family. Not even close! Every cephalopod has a sophisticated brain, three hearts, good eyesight, a system of jet propulsion, prehensile arms, a sharp beak, and (in most species) an ink sac for self-defense — whereas a clam is a hunk of flesh sealed in a shell that can attach itself to rocks and sips through a straw.\r\n\r\nMost cephalopods lack the distinct shell that’s characteristic of most mollusks. One exception is the chambered nautilus, which has a well-developed shell with air-filled chambers to keep it afloat. The cuttlefish, which kinda looks like a nautilus without an external shell has an internal, elongated, saucer-shaped shell called a <em>cuttlebone</em>, which is often sold at pet stores as a calcium source for birds (which seems kinda wrong, btw). The squid has a long, thin, internal shell called a <em>pen</em>.\r\n\r\nIn this article, we introduce you to the four most common members of the cephalopod family.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112983\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040902\"></a>Octopi</h2>\r\nIf aliens exist on this planet, they’re octopi or octopuses (both spellings are acceptable, by the way). The octopus is regarded as one of the most intelligent creatures in the sea, and <em>the</em> most intelligent invertebrate on Earth thanks to its large brain. In fact, the brain-to-body ratio of the octopus is the highest of all invertebrates and greater than that of many vertebrates. It even has a group of nerves that act brain-ish for each arm, enabling the octopus to move them independently. The octopus is also a tool user and can learn and remember. (Full disclosure, they’re Philippe’s favorite animal—can you tell?)\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284293\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284293\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-octopus.jpg\" alt=\"an octopus\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Cristina Mittermeier—www.sealegacy.org<br /><br />An octopus.[/caption]\r\n\r\nMoving on to the body, an octopus has eight arms, each of which has two rows of suckers used to capture and hold prey and to stick to smooth surfaces. The arms lead to a skirt, in the middle of which is their mouth (beak). With three hearts, they have lots of love to give. One heart pumps blood through the body, while the two small hearts pump blood to the gills. Their bodies are very malleable, allowing them to squeeze into super tight spaces — as long as their beak fits, they can make it, bringing a whole new meaning to the phrase, “If I fits, I sits.”\r\n\r\nCompared to bivalves, their sex lives are ultra-conservative. Males remain males and females remain females their entire lives. As soon as the male passes sperm to the female to fertilize her eggs, the female becomes a devoted, die-hard mother . . . literally. For example, the giant pacific momma octopus lays her eggs and attentively watches over them, keeping them clean, aerated, and protected for up to ten months, during which time she doesn’t leave and doesn’t eat. She usually dies shortly after her eggs hatch. Octopus fathers don’t fare much better — they often die after mating (talk about deadbeat dads!).\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">An octopus will always beat you at a game of hide and seek. They’re able to change their color and texture to match their surroundings to a T. But the mimic octopus has everyone beat; it can even change its shape to impersonate other creatures such as a flounder, a lionfish, a sea snake, or even a tube worm. Hey, do you guys hire out for parties?</p>\r\nHonestly, we could write an entire chapter or even a whole book about octopi, given how fascinating they are. Just look at how adorable the dumbo octopus is, and the mating ritual of the Argonaut Octopus is something we just can’t talk about in a book for family audiences. So much to say, but so little time.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112984\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040903\"></a>Squid</h2>\r\nSquids look a lot like octopi, but they’re different in many ways, including the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>An octopus is smarter than a squid, but squids are better swimmers.</li>\r\n \t<li>An octopus has a roundish body, rectangular pupils, and eight arms, whereas a squid has a triangular body with a fin on either side, round pupils, eight arms, and two longer tentacles (with suction cups only at the tips).</li>\r\n \t<li>The arms of an octopus are more flexible than those of a squid, enabling them to walk around and to hold and move objects.</li>\r\n \t<li>A squid has a rigid internal structure, called a pen, that runs along its mantle and provides support; an octopus does not.</li>\r\n \t<li>Octopi generally hang out on the seafloor eating crustaceans and other benthic prey, while squid prefer the open ocean, feeding on shrimp and small fish.</li>\r\n \t<li>A squid’s self-defense mechanism involves expelling a cloud of ink that serves as a smoke screen, whereas an octopus relies more on camouflage or squeezing its body into a hollow object or crevice, though in desperate situations, an octopus can ink, too.</li>\r\n \t<li>Octopi reproduce as partners and attend to their eggs for up to a year until they hatch, whereas squids mate in large groups and leave their fertilized eggs attached to rocks or corals to fend for themselves.</li>\r\n \t<li>Octopi are generally solitary, whereas squids may live alone or in groups.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284292\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284292\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-squid.jpg\" alt=\"squid\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Cristina Mittermeier—www.sealegacy.org<br /><br />Squid hatching from clusters of eggs.[/caption]\r\n\r\nSquids range in size from about 16 millimeters (less than one inch, and so cute) up to 22 meters (about 72 feet, and terrifying) when stretched out.\r\n\r\nSome cool species of squid include the glass squid — almost fully transparent except for its eye balls (though its eye lids act as an invisibility cloak); the vampire squid, which can turn itself inside out to avoid predators; and the Humboldt squid, which can pulse its body with flashing red and white bioluminescence. Yowsa!\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Giant squid</h2>\r\nThe giant squid is about eight meters (26 feet) long, but with its tentacles stretched out, it may reach 22 meters (72 feet) in length. These massive creatures live in the deep ocean, and scientists still don’t know much about them. Most of what’s known has been gathered from studying carcasses that have washed up on beaches or been brought in by fishing boats.\r\n\r\nBased on the limited information available, we know that they eat shrimp, fish, and other squids. We also know that they engage in defensive epic battles with whales and sharks (that like to eat squid), based on the fact that whales and sharks have been observed with what look like giant squid hickeys all over them.\r\n\r\nBecause they live in the deep sea, giant squid have giant eyes. We’re talking BIG, as in largest in the animal kingdom — about 10 to 12 inches in diameter (the better to see you with my dear!). Researchers also think that giant squid live only about five years, meaning they must grow like weeds, and that they mate only once, so they’d better make it count.\r\n\r\nHowever, while the giant squid may be the longest, it may not be the largest. The colossal squid is shorter but weighs twice as much. One colossal squid on display at the Ta Papa Museum of New Zealand tips the scales at 490 kilograms (just over 1,080 pounds) while an average Giant Squid weighs in at around 275 kilograms (606 pounds). The beak of the colossal squid is the largest of all among mollusks, and their eyeballs are about the size of soccer balls.\r\n\r\nEven with their massive size, the giant and colossal squid are the preferred prey of the deep diving sperm whale. And (fun job), some scientists study the undigested beaks of these squid in sperm whale stomachs to gather additional information about the species. That would be one colossal and very smelly day at the office.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112985\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040904\"></a>Cuttlefish</h2>\r\nCuttlefish, also known as cuttles (no, not cuddles, although they look kind of cuddly), are sort of a cross between a squid and an octopus but with a more compact body. Like an octopus, a cuttlefish has a big brain and is a master of camouflage. Like a squid, it has eight arms and two longer tentacles and its head and body are tapered, more like a torpedo. Cuttlefish are unique in that they have an undulating fringe running along their sides and a cuttlebone to help with buoyancy, which enables them to hover. Another unique feature is their pupils, shaped like a “W,” which enables them to see in front of and behind them at the same time.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284290\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284290\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-cuttlefish.jpg\" alt=\"cuttlefish\" width=\"556\" height=\"371\" /> Source: Conor Goulding, Mote Marine Laboratory<br /><br />Cuttlefish.[/caption]\r\n\r\nThey tend to live in deep water during the winter and in the shallows over the summer months, and they live only one or two years, dying shortly after mating.\r\n\r\nThe Giant Cuttlefish lives in the waters around Australia. These large cuttles can grow to have a mantle length of about 50 centimeters (20 inches) and weigh around nine kilograms (about 20 pounds). That’s a lot to cuddle! They come back every season to the same rocky shores of southern Australia and mate, lay eggs, and then die. When the next generation hatches, they head off into the world (not much is known about where they go or what they do), but they always return to the same area to mate, lay eggs, and perish (cue up “Circle of Life” from <em>The Lion King</em>).\r\n<h2 id=\"tab5\" ><a name=\"_Toc48112986\"></a><a name=\"_Toc53040905\"></a>Nautilus</h2>\r\nIf a snail, a shrimp, and an octopus, had a baby together, it would look like a nautilus. The nautilus has a spiraled shell like a snail, but it’s sectioned off into chambers containing air to make the nautilus buoyant, enabling it hover in the water. As the nautilus grows and expands its shell, it creates new chambers. It has a face like a shrimp and arms like an octopus — actually about 90 tentacles that are grooved and secrete mucus to capture food and hold onto stationary objects when resting. Compared to octopi and squid, the nautilus doesn’t have the greatest vision, relying more on their sense of smell to find food.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_284289\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"556\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-284289\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/oceans-nautilus.jpg\" alt=\"nautilus\" width=\"556\" height=\"366\" /> Nautilus Macromphalus, depth 110m. Source: Laurent Ballesta—laurentballesta.com<br /><br />A nautilus.[/caption]\r\n\r\nThey’re nocturnal (active at night), making daily migrations up and down the water column. They live much longer than the other cephalopods (up to 20 years). Unfortunately, their shells are highly prized and because they don’t reach sexually maturity until they’re 10 to 15 years old (and even when they do, females lay only about ten eggs max), their population has declined significantly and will require a long time to bounce back. And because they need a hard shell to survive, they’re also threatened by ocean acidification. Thankfully, they’re a protected species, though poaching still happens.\r\n<p class=\"article-tips tech\">The nautilus is considered a living fossil, because it has changed very little over the 500 million years it has been around (in some form). Today, they live in the waters of the Indo-Pacific, hovering above reefs at depths of about 100 to 300 meters (330 to 990 feet). They can’t go much deeper, because the pressure would crush their air-filled shells. Not a good way to go.</p>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":34394,"name":"Ashlan Cousteau","slug":"ashlan-cousteau","description":"Ashlan Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and journalist with a passion for adventure. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34394"}},{"authorId":34395,"name":"Philippe Cousteau","slug":"philippe-cousteau","description":"Philippe Cousteau is a world-renowned environmental advocate, filmmaker, and author with a passion for adventure. He is the founder of EarthEcho International, a leading global voice for ocean conservation. ","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34395"}},{"authorId":8993,"name":"Joseph Kraynak","slug":"joseph-kraynak","description":"Joseph Kraynak is a writer who's contributed to several Dummies books, including Flipping Houses For Dummies, Oceans For Dummies, and Selling on Amazon For Dummies.","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/8993"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33763,"title":"Environmental Science","slug":"environmental-science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33763"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Octopi","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Squid","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Giant 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Learn to live sustainably, work toward a career in environmental science, and discover some pretty awesome facts about this planet of ours.

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Environmental Science Find New Ways to Go Green this Earth Day

Article / Updated 04-22-2022

Celebrate everything that is beautiful about our planet by reconnecting with nature, learning more about the natural environment, or picking up a new eco-friendly habit or two. April 22 marks the 52nd anniversary of Earth Day — a world-wide celebration commemorating everything that makes our blue-marble planet unique and beautiful, and all the things we can do to protect it. Starting all the way back during the environmental movement of the 1970s, Earth Day has grown to become a powerful motivator for individuals and companies alike to become more environmentally aware and responsible. From local volunteer cleanups to nation-wide conservation initiatives, this year is no different, with numerous events happening at both the grassroots and state levels. Want to join in on the celebration? Find Earth Day events in your area, by visiting https://www.earthday.org/ The First Earth Day Did you know... In response to public outcry to the Santa Barbara Oil Spill of 1969, U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson organized a nationwide "teach-in" about environmental issues to take place on April 22, 1970. More than 2,000 colleges and universities, 10,000 public schools, and 20 million citizens participated. Aside from volunteering or donating to an eco-friendly cause, there are plenty of other ways to celebrate Earth Day — here are just a few. Plant a healthy diet You’ve probably already heard about the massive environmental impact that animal farming has on the planet. It is second only to fossil fuels in terms of contributing to human-made greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change. And, while the jump from a traditional omnivorous diet to a full-blown vegan one is not something most people can accomplish overnight, cutting down on red meat is a great first step. Something as simple as committing to meat-free Mondays can have a significant influence on your health and the environment. Get started by taking a crack at one or two of our favorite plant-based recipes found in Plant-Based Diet Cookbook For Dummies. Channel your inner green thumb You don’t need to become an expert horticulturist to help save our planet. Simply buying local or better yet, growing some of your own food can help reduce your carbon footprint — not to mention, teach you valuable transferable skills like diligence and patience. Plus, there’s just something so satisfying about working with your hands, especially if you’re used to working in front of a screen all day. You can start by growing some common herbs like rosemary or thyme. They are fairly resilient and, depending on where you live, can even be grown indoors. If you lack the space to garden, look for farmers markets in your area or, better yet, join a community garden, these gardens are becoming increasingly popular, even in the most urban of cities. Don't worry if you have no previous gardening knowledge — beginner-friendly resources, such as Gardening Basics For Dummies, will help you get there. You can also find a farmers market near you using the USDA National Farmers Market Directory. Stay informed It’s no secret that our planet is in grave danger as a result of climate change. But, contrary to what you may feel after reading all the increasingly worrisome headlines, you must remember — there’s still hope. And, while the biggest contributors of climate change, like animal farming and fossil fuel burning, may seem so far removed from your daily life, you’d be surprised how much of a difference you as an individual can make. Staying informed is perhaps the easiest way to help environmental causes. As an informed citizen, you have the power to choose more wisely what products to buy, what companies and practices to support, and even who you vote for in the next election. Don't know where to start? Check out Climate Change For Dummies to help you navigate this complex topic. More ways to greenify your life There’s always something more we can do to reduce our environmental impact on the planet, but that should not discourage us from taking action — after all, every little bit counts. One small change in your daily routine today will lead you to more and more lasting changes in the future. If you’re ready to explore even more ways to go green, check out Green Living For Dummies for a more comprehensive guide to sustainable living. From the team at Dummies, we wish all our fellow earthlings a happy and green Earth Day.

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Environmental Science Tornadoes: Really Twisted Winds

Article / Updated 04-18-2022

Tornadoes are nature's most violent storms. Nothing the atmosphere dishes out is more destructive. They can sweep up anything that moves. They lift buildings from their foundations. They make a swirling cloud of violently flying debris. They are very dangerous to all living things, not only because of the sheer power of their winds, but the missiles of debris they create. Wind measuring instruments are destroyed by tornadoes, although according to reliable estimates, their winds can exceed 250 miles per hour. Flying at those speeds, pieces of straw can penetrate wood. According to most scientists, the top wind speeds in the strongest tornadoes are about 280 miles per hour. In an average year, 1,200 tornadoes are reported in the United States, far more than any other place in the world. On average, tornadoes cause 80 deaths in the U.S. every year and 1,500 injuries, although averages don't mean very much when it comes to these storms. In 1998, for example, 130 people died in tornadoes in the U.S., including 42 who were killed in an outbreak in central Florida and 34 who died in a single tornado in Birmingham, Alabama. Most human casualties are people in mobile homes and vehicles. The deadliest single tornado struck on March 18, 1925. In three and a half hours, it traveled 219 miles through Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people. Most tornadoes, nearly 90 percent, travel from the southwest to the northeast, although some follow quick-changing zigzag paths. Weak tornadoes, or decaying tornadoes, often have a thin ropelike appearance. The most violent tornadoes have a broad, dark, funnel-shape that extends from a dark wall cloud of a large thunderstorm. There have been reports of some tornadoes that practically stand still, hovering over a single field. Others crawl along at 5 miles per hour. But the average tornado travels 35 miles per hour, and some have been clocked at more than 70 miles per hour. A tornado in 1917 traveled a record 293 miles. The average width of a tornado's path is about 140 yards, although some have been reported to be more than a mile wide. Most tornadoes occur between 3 p.m. and 9 p.m., although they have been known to strike at all hours of the day or night. They usually last only about 15 minutes, although, some have been known to stay on the ground for hours. Tornado Alley The size of the place known as Tornado Alley expands through spring and summer as heating from the sun grows warmer and the flow of warm moisture from the Gulf of Mexico spreads farther north. An area that includes central Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas is the hard core of the season, but before it is over, as Figure 1 illustrates, Tornado Alley extends north to Nebraska and Iowa. Figure 1: Tornado Alley. It shrinks and swells over time, but there is only one Tornado Alley. Nowhere else in the world sees weather conditions in a combination that is so perfect for these storms. Here's what makes the storms of Tornado Alley so bad: Beginning in spring and continuing through summer, low-level winds from the south and southeast bring a plentiful supply of warm tropical moisture up from the Gulf of Mexico into the Great Plains. From down off of the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains or from out of the deserts of northern Mexico come other flows of very dry air that travel about 3,000 feet above the ground. From 10,000 feet, the prevailing westerly winds, sometimes accompanied by a powerful jet stream, race overhead, carrying cool air from the Pacific Ocean. Sometimes, the winds form a convective cap lid of warm air over the Plains that the rising air is eventually able to break through and explode upward into the sky. These are the ingredients for the most severe thunderstorms and most powerful twisters — sharp differences in temperatures at different levels, big contrasts in dryness and moisture, and layers of powerful winds that are blowing from different directions at different speeds. Forecasting Weather forecasters in Tornado Alley have a pretty good idea of the menu of conditions that are necessary to make severe thunderstorms, and they're pretty good at being able to forecast that severe thunderstorms are on the way. They can say that large hailstones and strong winds are likely, and a tornado is a possibility during the next several hours or the next day or two. But they can't forecast a tornado. The question of which of the conditions on the menu for severe thunderstorms actually causes tornadoes to form in these storms remains one of the most difficult mysteries of weather science. A severe thunderstorm that causes a tornado can look exactly like a severe thunderstorm that does not cause a tornado. Weather researchers have been working on the problem for years, chasing tornadoes all over the countryside, and still it is one of those things that is not well understood. The presence in the area of supercell thunderstorms really puts pressure on forecasters in local weather service field offices. The national Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma, is on the phone giving advice, but the buck stops in the local office. The local forecasters know that a lethal tornado could come spinning down out of the dark cloud at any moment, but they can't be sure until they see it show up on a Doppler radar screen or a funnel is actually observed. Warning the public Billions of dollars have been spent in the last several years on research and computer modeling, radars and satellite technologies, and high-speed communications. Progress has been made. On average, when tornado warnings were issued in 1994, communities had six minutes to react. By 1998, the average lead time for warnings had stretched to 12 minutes. Television meteorologists and other media outlets play vital roles in such weather emergencies, continuously broadcasting the locations and predicted paths of tornadoes. Many lives are being saved by the increased public awareness and the lengthening time of advance warning that is available. In fact, the longer lead-time has reached the point where people are rethinking the idea of public shelters for tornadoes. As minutes are added to advance warnings, now it may be possible for people in harm's way to rush to a shelter before a tornado hits. More than 15,000 severe storm and tornado watches and warnings are issued by the National Weather Service every year. Most of the time, they are accurate. Sometimes, they are missed. Occasionally there are false alarms. The successes are taken for granted and often overlooked in the details of a tornado disaster. The failures and the false alarms seem to be remembered forever. Perfectly reasonable people who will forgive you for missing the rain on their picnic now have a different attitude. When it comes to tornadoes, they want perfection. Lives and limbs What are the odds of a tornado crossing your path? Even in Tornado Alley, the odds are against such an unhappy occasion. When it happens, of course, it's a disaster — but still, the odds are high against it. People think about tornadoes in tornado country the way people in the Southeast think about hurricanes and people in California think about earthquakes. It's part of the background of daily life that you really don't give very much thought to, because chances are, it's not going to happen. The five-dollar word for this is complacency — a self-satisfied unawareness of danger — and somebody is always getting on their high horse about it. The truth is, day in and day out, most people have other things to worry about that just seem more real. And it's just human nature to be optimistic, and to think things are going to turn out for the best. But it leaves you open for some terrible surprises once in a while, which is kind of sad, when you think about it. Government people in the disaster business and American Red Cross relief workers who deal with victims of these storms see this sense of surprise on people's faces all the time. A tornado watch or a warning? Don't confuse a watch with a warning. There is a big difference. Here is what they are about: Tornado watch: When National Weather Service forecasters issue a tornado watch, they are making a forecast that tornadoes are possible in your area. It's time to remain alert to signs of approaching storms and to make sure that you are prepared for an emergency. Tornado warning: This is an emergency message. A tornado has been sighted in your area, or weather radar indicates one is present. Now is the time to get to safety, to put your emergency plan into action. Tornado dos — and don'ts! The National Weather Service and the American Red Cross have put together these basic tips about tornado safety: Seek shelter immediately, preferably underground in a basement or in an interior room on the lowest floor, such as a closet or bathroom. Stay away from windows. Get out of your car or your mobile home and seek shelter in a sturdy structure. In the open, lie flat in a ditch or depression. Protect your head from flying debris. Do not try to outrun a tornado in your car. Do not seek shelter under a bridge over overpass. The idea that these are safe shelters is just plain wrong.

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Environmental Science Oceans For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-12-2022

The ocean is big — really, really big — both as a body of water and as a topic. It encompasses physical characteristics, its ecosystems and inhabitants, its influence on climate and weather, the sustainable use of its resources, and much more. This Cheat Sheet touches on a few key topics.

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Environmental Science Environmental Science For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-07-2022

Environmental science is a field of study focused on Earth’s environment and the resources it provides to every living organism, including humans. Environmental scientists focus on studying the environment and everything in it and finding sustainable solutions to environmental issues. In particular, this means meeting the needs of human beings (and other organisms) today without damaging the environment, depleting resources, or compromising the earth’s ability to meet the resource needs of the future. A sustainable solution to an environmental problem must be ecologically sound, economically viable, and culturally acceptable. This Cheat Sheet summarizes some key aspects of what environmental scientists study.

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Environmental Science Climate Change For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-08-2022

This Cheat Sheet describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions. Although climate change is connected to ugly futures, melting icecaps, rising sea levels, soaring temperatures, worsening hurricanes and monsoons, and the list goes on, it’s also a link to a better future. Climate change is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.

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Environmental Science Weather For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-01-2022

Who doesn’t talk about the weather? But, if you know the meanings of some key weather words, you can talk even more fluently. And clouds provide scope for imagination and help in predicting and anticipating weather changes.

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Environmental Science Global Warming For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-16-2022

Global warming is already changing the environment, the economy, and people’s ways of living. The changes aren’t over, either, and the more that changes around the world, the more critical it is to understand this complex and important issue. The following describes how and why greenhouse gases are formed, investigates some important global warming terms, uncovers the negative impacts of climate change, and offers solutions you can implement in your everyday life to alleviate rising greenhouse gas emissions. Although global warming is connected to scary scenarios featuring soaring temperatures and worsening hurricanes and monsoons, it’s also a link to a better future. Global warming is opening doors for the development of new types of fuels, leading the shift to reliable energy sources, and creating a vision of a greener tomorrow.

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Environmental Science Check Out the Bones on Those Osteichthyes!

Article / Updated 04-20-2021

Osteichthyes (pronounced ah-stee-ick-thees) is a class of about 28,000 fish characterized (in most forms) by a bony skeleton, scales (some without), paired fins, a single pair of gill openings supported by bony gill arches each covered by an operculum, jaws, a mouth with many teeth, a swim bladder (air-filled sack) for buoyancy, paired nostrils, and external fertilization of eggs. Bony fish are generally broken down into two groups: Ray-finned fish: Ray-finned fish have fins supported by spines; the fins are moved by muscles in the body of the fish that do not extend into the fins. They (usually) have a pair of pectoral fins and a pair of pelvic fins, along with dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, and most look like, well, a fish — their bodies are oval-ish and tapered at each end. They breathe primarily through gills. And they have a lateral line — a row of organs that sense changes in water pressure, movement, and vibrations (kind of like the sensitive hairs in our inner ears) which helps them find prey and not become prey themselves. Lobe-finned fish: Lobe-finned fish have rounded fins (shaped more like your earlobes), which are supported by muscles and articulated bones (bones that meet to form joints). In other words, their fins are more like hands than typical fish fins, though the end of each fin has thin, bony structures that fan out from the core of the fin. These fins are thought to be the precursors of amphibian legs and feet. Lobe-finned fish also have two dorsal fins (instead of one), and they have both gills and lungs (though they’re not functional in certain species), which enables some of them to breathe on land or under water. As your mother told you when you experienced your first heartbreak, there’s always more fish in the sea. With bony fish, that means 28,000 species and counting. We can’t possibly cover them all, so we kept this discussion brief by describing the two groups (ray-finned and lobe-finned) and highlighting the common, the cool, and the weird in each group. Ray finned Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) are, by far, the largest and most diverse group of bony fish. They include anchovies, angelfish, barracuda, catfish, cod, eels, flounder, flying fish, frogfish, gars, grouper, grunt, halibut, herring, hogfish, jacks, lionfish, mackerel, marlin, minnows, mullet, needlefish, perch, piranha, pompano, porgy, sailfish, sardines, sea bass, sea trout, seahorses, shad, sheepshead, snappers, snook, sole, sturgeon, swordfish, tarpon, triggerfish, toothfish, tuna . . . we could go on but we think you get the idea. But let’s look at some notable members of the group. Imagine an award show with categories for the smallest, biggest, fastest, and so on: Smallest: Stout infantfish are barely as long as the width of a pencil — females max out at about 8.4 millimeters long, while males grow to only 7 millimeters. They’re also the smallest and lightest of all known vertebrates. If you ordered a pound of stout infantfish from the menu, you’d get a plate of roughly 500,000 fish! Largest: The sunfish (Mola Mola) can grow to be over 2,268 kilograms (5,000 pounds). They live in warm water and look like a swimming fish head that has been smushed. Fastest: The black marlin has been clocked at a maximum speed of about 129 kilometers per hour (about 80 mph). Longest: The giant oarfish is a long serpent-looking pelagic fish up to eight meters (26 feet) long. They’re silver with a red mohawk looking fin. They cherish their privacy and are rarely seen alive. Coolest: The Antarctic icefish lacks hemoglobin in its blood, making it clear and less susceptible to freezing, sort of like anti-freeze, which is useful for any fish living in the frigid waters off Antarctica. Due to this lack of hemoglobin, they have huge hearts and almost four times the amount of blood as other fish. Weirdest couple: Female anglerfish have it going on! Living in the dark, deep ocean, these ladies have a dangling dorsal fin tipped with luminescent skin, which functions as a fishing rod protruding from the center of their head ending in a glow-in-the-dark lure just in front of their huge mouth full of teeth. And she has all the guys attached at the hip, seriously. Male anglerfish are usually much smaller than the females. When a male finds one of these lovely ladies, he attaches himself to her as a permanent parasite. After a while, he loses his eyes and all his organs except his testes, physically fusing his body with hers. Talk about a Stage 4 clinger! Females can carry around multiple mates. Cutest: Seahorses get by on their looks. Remember when we said most ray-finned fish look like fish? Well, seahorses are one of those exceptions. They swim around upright with what looks like a little armored body and quick moving fins. They have a tubular snout used for eating plankton and fish larvae. And it’s the male seahorses that carry around the fertilized eggs in a special pouch until they hatch — how adorable is that?! Father of the year: Speaking of caring fathers, the jawfish is a paternal mouthbrooder, meaning he holds the fertilized eggs in his mouth till they hatch (see the following figure). Every so often, he spits them out, a practice called churning, which keeps the eggs aerated, hydrated, and clean, thereby increasing the chances that more will hatch. All the while, he doesn’t eat a thing. Fortunately for him, the incubation period for the eggs is only five to seven days. Friendliest: Yep, fish can be friendly, and a perfect example is the grouper. Because of their large size (the goliath grouper can grow to be almost 800 pounds), these fish are not really scared of anything and are naturally curious. We have had many encounters with grouper fish over the years, and honestly, they are the Golden Retrievers of the sea. The grouper in the following figure actually took Ashlan on a tour of his home, following her along her entire dive and nudging her when she wasn’t paying him enough attention. Longest living: Orange roughy, brightly colored and slow moving, can live up to 200 years — that is, unless they’re eaten (by us). The problem with eating orange roughy is that they don’t reach sexual maturity until the age of 20, so they’re exceedingly susceptible to over-fishing, and they’re caught using the super destructive fishing method of bottom trawling. If you need another reason not to eat them, they’re often full of heavy metals, such as mercury, because they live a long time and bio-magnify toxins into their tissue. So next time you are at a restaurant and they offer you orange roughy as a special, just say no and feel free to tell the waiter (and the chef) why. Honestly, most people, even in restaurants, don’t know how bad and destructive catching some of these fish is. A little schooling goes a long way. Lobe-finned Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) are a group of only eight living species with lobe-shaped fins, two dorsal fins, gills, and lungs (which aren’t functional in certain species). They’re broken down into two classes — coelacanths and lungfish. Coelacanths Thought to have gone extinct 66 million years ago with the dinos, a coelacanth was spotted at a fish market in 1938. Two extant (living) species are now recognized — the West Indian Ocean coelacanth and Indonesian coelacanth. Referred to as a living fossil, many scientists see them as a possible link between sea creatures and four-legged land animals, such as salamanders, newts, and lizards. Living as deep as 2,000 feet, these carnivorous fish sleep in caves during the day and hunt for prey (mostly octopus, squid, and cuttlefish) at night. They grow to be about 6 feet long and weigh up to about 200 pounds. In 2010, Laurent Ballesta led a confidential Gombessa expedition in Jesser Canyon, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, to capture the very first pictures of the coelacanth taken by a diver (–120 meters). This was possible thanks to the South African diver Peter Timm, who was the first to face the mythical fish locally named Gombessa. Discover more in the book, Gombessa, Meeting with the Coelacanth. Coelacanths have lungs during their embryonic development that stop developing as the fish grows and are barely noticeable (and non-functioning) in adults. They also have a rostral organ in their snout that’s part of an electro-sensory system and a hinged skull that enables the back of the skull to tilt up to enlarge the opening of the mouth. Lungfish As their name implies, lungfish can breathe air. Yep, they have either one or two lungs (depending on the species) to extract oxygen from the air, and they also have gills to extract oxygen from water. These are freshwater fish that live in rivers and lakes in Australia, Africa, and South America. And they’re big — most species growing up to 1.2 to 2.1 meters (4 to 7 feet) long. Lungfish have horrible eye sight, but their great sense of smell, lateral lines, and sensitive touch (with their pectoral and pelvic fins) make up for it. African lungfish can also go into a deep sleep (estivation) for up to two years — a slimy sleeping beauty.

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Environmental Science Elasmobranchii: Sharks, Skates, and Rays

Article / Updated 04-20-2021

Elasmobranchii (pronounced ee-laz-mo-brank-ee-ee) are a familiar subclass of fish that includes some of the most misunderstood and maligned creatures in the world—sharks, skates, and rays. They’re characterized by a rigid dorsal fin (the top fin) and have four to seven pairs of gill slits to breathe. They’re all carnivorous, feeding on everything from large marine mammals to small crustaceans, and they lack a swim bladder, equipped instead with an oily liver to maintain buoyancy. In contrast to the teeth of most vertebrates, which are locked into sockets in the jaw bones, elasmobranch teeth are attached to the jaw with fleshy tissue. Many species have rows of teeth that continue to be replaced—some may go through as many as tens of thousands of teeth in a lifetime. Selachiia: Sharks Sharks go way back. The first evidence of sharks dates to the Ordovician period 400 to 450 million years ago! Approximately 450 species of fish have the honor of being classified as sharks, and they range in size from about 20 centimeters (eight inches) to 12 meters (40 feet) long. They’re all predators and feed mostly on fish, seals, and whales, but some sharks, such as the whale sharks and megamouth sharks, feed on tiny plankton. Baby sharks are called “pups,” but even before they’re born, they’re not all sweet and cuddly. Some baby sharks eat their brothers and sisters who are growing slower while still inside their mother (talk about sibling rivalry!). Other species of sharks create extra eggs for the growing pups to consume. Both are examples of intrauterine cannibalism. Some scientists believe this practice is “survival of the fittest” to keep the species strong. The smallest of sharks is the dwarf lantern shark. Lantern sharks, as their name implies, are bioluminescent—able to produce their own light, which they use to ward off predators, blend in with the lighter background above them, and communicate when swimming in schools. On the other end of the size spectrum is the whale shark, which can grow as long as 40 feet and weigh up to 40 tons (see the following figure). While this whale shark could easily gulp down prey larger than humans, it prefers feeding on tiny plankton. So, the biggest fish in the sea eats some of the smallest food. Bull sharks, so named because of their short, blunt snout, wide body, and aggressive temperament (and because they often head-butt their prey before eating them), are unique in that they can live in freshwater or marine environments, sometimes swimming far upstream into a river or tributary (see the following figure). Among sharks, they pose perhaps the most serious threat to humans mostly because they like to swim in the same places humans do, not because they find humans particularly tasty. Mako sharks (see the following figure) are perhaps the fastest of the species and one of the fastest fish on the planet, attaining speeds of up to 74 kilometers (45 miles) per hour, fast enough to chase down its favorite food — the speedy tuna. The hammerhead shark gets the award for being the weirdest looking with an eye on either end of its mallet-shaped head. They feed mostly on small fish, octopus, squid, and crustaceans and can grow up to six meters (20 feet) long and weigh as much as 450 kilograms (about 1,000 pounds). Depending on the species, they are either solitary or school in enormous numbers. No section on sharks would be complete without mention of the baddest shark prowling the oceans — the great white shark, which can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet) long and weigh more than 2.5 tons (see the following figure). They have a varied diet of fish, crustaceans, seals, sea lions, other sharks, and even small-toothed whales such as orcas. Where do they live? Wherever they want. But seriously, you can bump into one just about anywhere the water temperature is between 12 and 24 degrees Celsius (54 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit). Some people are terrified of sharks and won’t even take a dip in the ocean because of them, but we love sharks. I (Ashlan) am particularly fond of them for their beauty, size, power, athleticism, diversity, and for all they do to keep our oceans healthy. We really want you to love and respect them, too . . . and, if you fear them, to stop being afraid. Sharks have far more reason to fear (and hate) us humans than we have to fear them. Yes, Jaws scared the “carp” out of all of us, and to his dying day Peter Benchley (who wrote the book) felt horrible for this. He later became a huge shark activist, but the damage had been done. Generations of readers and moviegoers were scared out of their swimsuits of sharks, especially the great white, and unnecessarily so. Sharks are not vicious murderers just waiting for you to wade past the buoys or paddle your surfboard or paddleboard overhead. Certainly, some animals kill for fun — namely dolphins, house cats, killer whales, leopards, honey badgers, and, of course, humans. But the vast majority of predators, including sharks, eat only when necessary. And, like many predators, sharks carefully calculate their return on investment—whether they’ll expend more energy attacking a healthy surfer or an injured seal, for example. That’s why sharks smell for blood. They’re on the prowl for the wounded and the sick, and they can go long stretches without eating, so they can afford to be picky eaters and wait for the right opportunity to come along. Nothing personal, but you’re not the first choice on their menu. In fact, scientists believe that shark attacks happen as a case of mistaken identity. Sharks can only tell what you are with their mouth (no hands to feel ya with) which is why most attacks are a single bite and release and thus not usually fatal. The sharks quickly realize that you aren’t their normal prey and they move on. Still afraid? Then check out the following table to put your chances of dying from a shark attack in perspective. Gauging the Risk of Death from Shark Attack Cause of death Average annual deaths in the U.S. Car accident 44,757 Gun deaths 36,000 Accidental poisoning 19,456 Falling 17,229 Bike accident 762 Air/space accident 742 Excessive cold 620 Sun/heat exposure 273 Bee, wasp, hornet stings 62 Lightning 47 Train accident 24 Dog attack 16 Fireworks 11 Spider bite 7 Snake bite 5 Shark attack 1 Not only are sharks much less dangerous than many people think, they also play a vital role in maintaining a healthy ocean. As apex predators, they keep the population of their prey in check, strengthen the gene pools of their prey, and reduce the spread of disease by eating the sick, weak, and injured. Lions, tigers, bears, and other apex predators perform the same service, but they don’t get the horrible rap that sharks do (and they also attack people every once in a while, just sayin’). Sharks also protect plants and help preserve plant-based ecosystems by reducing the populations of the animals that graze on those plants. And they do their part to sequester carbon. Philippe and I swim with all types of sharks all over the world. From dozens of Great Whites off Mexico, swarms of Grey Reef Sharks in the Marshall Islands, to Whale Sharks in La Paz and huge Great Hammerheads in the Bahamas — never once have we felt scared or threatened. But we are always cautious and respectful when we’re in the water with these extraordinary predators. The ocean is their home, not ours. Unfortunately, every year, sharks are killed for their fins and their meat — about 100 million a year (but that number could actually be anywhere between 63 million and 273 million sharks killed each year). On average, that means about 11,400 sharks are slaughtered every hour, whereas four people in the whole entire world die from shark attacks per year on average. Sharks have far more to fear than we do. Batoidea: Rays Rays are a group of about 500 species that live in ocean waters worldwide. They look like a shark that has been smushed into a pancake in the outline of a kite (see the following figure). While sharks propel themselves with their tail, rays propel themselves with elongated wing-like pectoral fins. Some rays have a whip-like tail tipped with a venomous barb. A ray’s mouth is usually on the underside of its body and, when viewed from certain angles, looks as though it’s smiling. Instead of pointy teeth like sharks, rays have evolved rounded teeth they use to crush and grind their prey, mostly mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish. Another difference from sharks is that rays have their gill slits underneath their body as opposed to the sides and take in water to breathe through large openings (spiracles) on the upper surface of the head. In addition, most rays have their eyes on top of their head. Most are benthic (bottom dwelling) but some species such as the manta ray are epipelagic (free swimming). Like sharks, males have a clasper they use to mate with the female which then almost exclusively gives birth to live young. Finally, rays are almost all marine. Rays are a diverse group that includes electric rays, stingrays, manta rays, and more. In this section, we cover a few of our favorites. Electric rays have a rounded body and range in length from less than 30 centimeters (1 foot) to about 2 meters (6 feet). They’re equipped with two large electric organs positioned on either side of their head that are capable of delivering a 220-volt shock — more than sufficient for stunning prey and fending off predators. They generally feed on small fish and invertebrates, so you’re pretty safe unless you happen to step on one. The largest ray is the giant manta ray, shown in the following figure, which has a “wingspan” of up to nearly 9 meters (30 feet). They’re commonly referred to as “devil rays” because of the two special flaps at the front of their heads called cephalic lobes, but devil rays are very sweet. They feed mostly on plankton, using those devilish horns to direct more water and food into their mouths. Eagle rays have beautiful spotted skin that produce the appearance of dappled sunlight as they swim through the water. Unlike most rays, they have a very long pronounced tail and have been known to launch themselves out of the water in dramatic displays, spinning and flipping in the air. Last on our list of rays is the most unique of the group—the sawfish, also referred to as a carpenter fish. Granted, it looks more like a shark, but its mouth and gills are positioned on its underside, and it has wing-like fins characteristic of a ray. Its coolest feature is its long snout rimmed with exposed teeth. Batoidea: Skates Skates are members of the same subclass as rays, and they look like rays, but they have a few key differences. While rays are more diamond shaped, a skate’s body is more triangular or rounded, and they often have a pointy nose. Skates also have thicker, wider tails with sharp spikes that run along the middle of the tail and up their backs (no barb at the tip). Skates have small teeth to eat prey, in contrast to the rounded teeth rays use to crush and grind their food. While rays swim in both shallow and open water, skates typically hang out near the bottom and often hide in the sand. Also, instead of live births, skates lay eggs in a leathery case called a mermaid’s purse. Unfortunately, skates are struggling to survive. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed the common skate as an endangered species in 2000 and as a critically endangered species since 2006.

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Environmental Science Cephalopods: Head and Tentacles Above the Rest

Article / Updated 04-20-2021

While gastropod means stomach on a foot, cephalopod means head on a foot, but with these mollusks, the pod (foot) has evolved into many prehensile arms/tentacles, which may be equipped with suction cups, hooks, or gooey mucus to catch prey and perform other functions. Yes, we’re talking octopus and squid, and their close cousins, the nautilus and cuttlefish. Most cephalopods have eight to ten arms, but some (such as the nautilus) have as many as 90. Now that’s a lot of handwashing! If you look at a bivalve and a cephalopod side by side, you’d never imagine they were in the same family. Not even close! Every cephalopod has a sophisticated brain, three hearts, good eyesight, a system of jet propulsion, prehensile arms, a sharp beak, and (in most species) an ink sac for self-defense — whereas a clam is a hunk of flesh sealed in a shell that can attach itself to rocks and sips through a straw. Most cephalopods lack the distinct shell that’s characteristic of most mollusks. One exception is the chambered nautilus, which has a well-developed shell with air-filled chambers to keep it afloat. The cuttlefish, which kinda looks like a nautilus without an external shell has an internal, elongated, saucer-shaped shell called a cuttlebone, which is often sold at pet stores as a calcium source for birds (which seems kinda wrong, btw). The squid has a long, thin, internal shell called a pen. In this article, we introduce you to the four most common members of the cephalopod family. Octopi If aliens exist on this planet, they’re octopi or octopuses (both spellings are acceptable, by the way). The octopus is regarded as one of the most intelligent creatures in the sea, and the most intelligent invertebrate on Earth thanks to its large brain. In fact, the brain-to-body ratio of the octopus is the highest of all invertebrates and greater than that of many vertebrates. It even has a group of nerves that act brain-ish for each arm, enabling the octopus to move them independently. The octopus is also a tool user and can learn and remember. (Full disclosure, they’re Philippe’s favorite animal—can you tell?) Moving on to the body, an octopus has eight arms, each of which has two rows of suckers used to capture and hold prey and to stick to smooth surfaces. The arms lead to a skirt, in the middle of which is their mouth (beak). With three hearts, they have lots of love to give. One heart pumps blood through the body, while the two small hearts pump blood to the gills. Their bodies are very malleable, allowing them to squeeze into super tight spaces — as long as their beak fits, they can make it, bringing a whole new meaning to the phrase, “If I fits, I sits.” Compared to bivalves, their sex lives are ultra-conservative. Males remain males and females remain females their entire lives. As soon as the male passes sperm to the female to fertilize her eggs, the female becomes a devoted, die-hard mother . . . literally. For example, the giant pacific momma octopus lays her eggs and attentively watches over them, keeping them clean, aerated, and protected for up to ten months, during which time she doesn’t leave and doesn’t eat. She usually dies shortly after her eggs hatch. Octopus fathers don’t fare much better — they often die after mating (talk about deadbeat dads!). An octopus will always beat you at a game of hide and seek. They’re able to change their color and texture to match their surroundings to a T. But the mimic octopus has everyone beat; it can even change its shape to impersonate other creatures such as a flounder, a lionfish, a sea snake, or even a tube worm. Hey, do you guys hire out for parties? Honestly, we could write an entire chapter or even a whole book about octopi, given how fascinating they are. Just look at how adorable the dumbo octopus is, and the mating ritual of the Argonaut Octopus is something we just can’t talk about in a book for family audiences. So much to say, but so little time. Squid Squids look a lot like octopi, but they’re different in many ways, including the following: An octopus is smarter than a squid, but squids are better swimmers. An octopus has a roundish body, rectangular pupils, and eight arms, whereas a squid has a triangular body with a fin on either side, round pupils, eight arms, and two longer tentacles (with suction cups only at the tips). The arms of an octopus are more flexible than those of a squid, enabling them to walk around and to hold and move objects. A squid has a rigid internal structure, called a pen, that runs along its mantle and provides support; an octopus does not. Octopi generally hang out on the seafloor eating crustaceans and other benthic prey, while squid prefer the open ocean, feeding on shrimp and small fish. A squid’s self-defense mechanism involves expelling a cloud of ink that serves as a smoke screen, whereas an octopus relies more on camouflage or squeezing its body into a hollow object or crevice, though in desperate situations, an octopus can ink, too. Octopi reproduce as partners and attend to their eggs for up to a year until they hatch, whereas squids mate in large groups and leave their fertilized eggs attached to rocks or corals to fend for themselves. Octopi are generally solitary, whereas squids may live alone or in groups. Squids range in size from about 16 millimeters (less than one inch, and so cute) up to 22 meters (about 72 feet, and terrifying) when stretched out. Some cool species of squid include the glass squid — almost fully transparent except for its eye balls (though its eye lids act as an invisibility cloak); the vampire squid, which can turn itself inside out to avoid predators; and the Humboldt squid, which can pulse its body with flashing red and white bioluminescence. Yowsa! Giant squid The giant squid is about eight meters (26 feet) long, but with its tentacles stretched out, it may reach 22 meters (72 feet) in length. These massive creatures live in the deep ocean, and scientists still don’t know much about them. Most of what’s known has been gathered from studying carcasses that have washed up on beaches or been brought in by fishing boats. Based on the limited information available, we know that they eat shrimp, fish, and other squids. We also know that they engage in defensive epic battles with whales and sharks (that like to eat squid), based on the fact that whales and sharks have been observed with what look like giant squid hickeys all over them. Because they live in the deep sea, giant squid have giant eyes. We’re talking BIG, as in largest in the animal kingdom — about 10 to 12 inches in diameter (the better to see you with my dear!). Researchers also think that giant squid live only about five years, meaning they must grow like weeds, and that they mate only once, so they’d better make it count. However, while the giant squid may be the longest, it may not be the largest. The colossal squid is shorter but weighs twice as much. One colossal squid on display at the Ta Papa Museum of New Zealand tips the scales at 490 kilograms (just over 1,080 pounds) while an average Giant Squid weighs in at around 275 kilograms (606 pounds). The beak of the colossal squid is the largest of all among mollusks, and their eyeballs are about the size of soccer balls. Even with their massive size, the giant and colossal squid are the preferred prey of the deep diving sperm whale. And (fun job), some scientists study the undigested beaks of these squid in sperm whale stomachs to gather additional information about the species. That would be one colossal and very smelly day at the office. Cuttlefish Cuttlefish, also known as cuttles (no, not cuddles, although they look kind of cuddly), are sort of a cross between a squid and an octopus but with a more compact body. Like an octopus, a cuttlefish has a big brain and is a master of camouflage. Like a squid, it has eight arms and two longer tentacles and its head and body are tapered, more like a torpedo. Cuttlefish are unique in that they have an undulating fringe running along their sides and a cuttlebone to help with buoyancy, which enables them to hover. Another unique feature is their pupils, shaped like a “W,” which enables them to see in front of and behind them at the same time. They tend to live in deep water during the winter and in the shallows over the summer months, and they live only one or two years, dying shortly after mating. The Giant Cuttlefish lives in the waters around Australia. These large cuttles can grow to have a mantle length of about 50 centimeters (20 inches) and weigh around nine kilograms (about 20 pounds). That’s a lot to cuddle! They come back every season to the same rocky shores of southern Australia and mate, lay eggs, and then die. When the next generation hatches, they head off into the world (not much is known about where they go or what they do), but they always return to the same area to mate, lay eggs, and perish (cue up “Circle of Life” from The Lion King). Nautilus If a snail, a shrimp, and an octopus, had a baby together, it would look like a nautilus. The nautilus has a spiraled shell like a snail, but it’s sectioned off into chambers containing air to make the nautilus buoyant, enabling it hover in the water. As the nautilus grows and expands its shell, it creates new chambers. It has a face like a shrimp and arms like an octopus — actually about 90 tentacles that are grooved and secrete mucus to capture food and hold onto stationary objects when resting. Compared to octopi and squid, the nautilus doesn’t have the greatest vision, relying more on their sense of smell to find food. They’re nocturnal (active at night), making daily migrations up and down the water column. They live much longer than the other cephalopods (up to 20 years). Unfortunately, their shells are highly prized and because they don’t reach sexually maturity until they’re 10 to 15 years old (and even when they do, females lay only about ten eggs max), their population has declined significantly and will require a long time to bounce back. And because they need a hard shell to survive, they’re also threatened by ocean acidification. Thankfully, they’re a protected species, though poaching still happens. The nautilus is considered a living fossil, because it has changed very little over the 500 million years it has been around (in some form). Today, they live in the waters of the Indo-Pacific, hovering above reefs at depths of about 100 to 300 meters (330 to 990 feet). They can’t go much deeper, because the pressure would crush their air-filled shells. Not a good way to go.

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