Grammar & Vocabulary Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 05-13-2022

As the old saying goes, "practice makes perfect," and while you're on the road to grammar perfection, a quick glance at the rules for proper grammar usage may help. Review some basic — and important — points related to sentence creation, common errors in new media communication, and overall polished grammar.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 05-02-2022

This handy Cheat Sheet will help you grapple with English grammar problems, clear up confusion caused by similar-sounding words, and improve your writing skills, in general.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-12-2022

As a copyeditor or proofreader, you can’t possibly remember everything, so you need outside resources and references, and lots of them. Although most resources are available online, it’s still helpful to have certain books on hand. And, of course, you need to know your proofreading symbols so that you can make changes and understand other editors’ changes.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-18-2022

If you use word games and flashcards, improving your vocabulary can be not only fun but key to increasing your general knowledge. Knowing the parts of speech and the meanings of prefixes and suffixes can help you understand English and some foreign words.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-24-2022

English grammar is not a mystery; it's a set of traditions and patterns of language handed down through the ages. With a little practice, you can learn the rules of Standard English so you can express yourself confidently and correctly.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 01-19-2022

Whether you’re engaging in everyday speech or writing the perfect paper, you need to be familiar with the various parts of English grammar. Knowing how to correctly use nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, and punctuation as well as how to properly structure a sentence can make or break a good grade or a professional presentation.

Article / Updated 10-21-2021

Learning how to write an address on an envelope is a good skill to master. However, often times, people incorrectly use commas and other punctuation in addresses and dates, which can throw things off, including the postal service! While commas are good, all-purpose separators, they should be used properly for an accurate and professional piece of writing or envelope. Use commas especially when items that are usually placed on individual lines are put next to each other on the same line. How to write an address Writing an address with proper punctuation on a traditional envelope can be accomplished by completing the steps below: Write the recipient’s name on the first line. Write the street address or post office (P.O.) box number on the second line. Write the city, state, and ZIP code on the third. To put this into use, let’s use an example of two characters communicating with addresses and dates in their writing. Jill is from Mars. Belle is from a small town called Venus. Here’s her (fictional) address the way you see it on an envelope using the steps provided above: Ms. Belle Planet 223 Center Street Venus, New York 10001 In the body of a letter, you can also write an address in envelope form like this: Please send a dozen rockets to the following address: Ms. Belle Planet 223 Center Street Venus, New York 10001 The introductory words (Please send a dozen rockets to the following address) end with a colon ( : ) if they express a complete unit of thought. If the introductory words leave you hanging (Please send a dozen rockets to, for example), don’t use a colon. If you put Belle’s address into a sentence, you have to separate each item of the address, as you see here: Belle Planet lives at 223 Center Street, Venus, New York 10001. Commas in addresses can be tricky — notice that the house number and street are not separated by a comma, nor are the state and ZIP code. If the sentence continues, you must separate the last item in the address from the rest of the sentence with another comma: Belle Planet lives at 223 Center Street, Venus, New York 10001, but she is thinking of moving to Mars in order to be closer to her friend Jill. If there is no street address — just a city and a state — put a comma between the city and the state. If the sentence continues after the state name, place a comma after the state. Belle Planet lives in Venus, New York, but she is thinking of moving to Mars. Commas also separate countries from the city/state/province: Roger lives in Edinburgh, Scotland, near a large body of water. His brother Michael just built a house in Zilda, Wisconsin. How to punctuate written dates The rules for placing commas in dates aren’t very stable these days. What was once carved into stone is now sometimes viewed as old-fashioned. To make matters even more complicated, writers from different areas (science, literature, and the like) favor different systems. If you’re writing for publication, check with your editor about the publisher’s preferred style. If the date is alone on a line (perhaps at the top of a letter), these formats are fine: September 28, 2060 (traditional) Sept. 28, 2060 (traditional) 28 September 2060 (modern in the United States, traditional in many other countries) When dates appear in a sentence, the format changes depending upon how traditional you want to be and how much information you want to give: On September 28, 2060, Lulu ate several thousand gummy candies. (Traditional: commas separate the day and year and the year from the rest of the sentence.) In October, 2060, Lulu gave up sugary snacks. (Traditional: a comma separates the month from the year and the year from the rest of the sentence.) Lulu pigs out every October 31. (Timeless: both the traditional and modern camp omit commas in this format.) In October 2060 Lulu suffered from severe indigestion. (Modern: no commas appear.) Lulu visited a nutritionist on 20 October 2060. (Modern: no commas appear.)

Article / Updated 09-13-2021

Dozens and dozens of English verbs have irregular past tense forms, as well as irregular past participles. If you are studying English grammar, you may want to memorize the common irregular past and past participles listed here. This list is not exhaustive by any means, but these are common verbs English speakers use every day. Lucky for you, English present participles, except for the occasional change from the letter y to the letter i, are fairly straightforward. Just add ing. If you have questions about a particular verb, check your dictionary. In the following table, the first column is the infinitive form of the verb. (The infinitive is the “to + verb” form — to laugh, to cry, to learn grammar, and so on.) The second column is the simple past tense. The third column is the past participle, which is combined with has (singular) or have (plural) to form the present perfect tense. The past participle is also used with had to form the past perfect tense. Forms of Irregular Participles Verb Past Past Participle bear bore borne become became become begin began begun bite bit bitten break broke broken bring brought brought catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come do did done drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feel felt felt fly flew flown freeze froze frozen get got got or gotten go went gone know knew known lay laid laid lead led led lend lent lent lie lay lain lose lost lost ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run say said said see saw seen set set set shake shook shaken sing sang sung sink sank or sunk sunk sit sat sat sleep slept slept speak spoke spoken steal stole stolen swim swam swum take took taken throw threw thrown wear wore worn win won won write wrote written

Article / Updated 05-02-2018

Proper English is important. The only problem with that statement is the definition of “proper.” Language has many levels of formality, all of which are “proper” at times and completely unsuitable at others. Many gradations of formality exist, but to make things easier, divide English into three large categories: “friendspeak” (the most casual), “conversational” (one step up), and “formal” (the equivalent of wearing your best business attire). Take a look at these examples: c u in 10 (friendspeak) There in ten minutes. (conversational) I will arrive in ten minutes. (formal) All three statements say the same thing in very different ways. Here’s the deal: Friendspeak breaks some rules of formal English on purpose, to show that people are comfortable with each other. Friendspeak shortens or drops words and often includes slang and references that only close friends understand. No one has to teach you this level of English. You learn it from your pals, or you create it yourself and teach it to your buddies. Conversational English sounds relaxed, but not too relaxed. It’s the language equivalent of jeans and a T-shirt. Conversational English is filled with contractions (I’m instead of I am, would’ve instead of would have, and so forth). Not many abbreviations appear in conversational English, but you may confidently include those that are well established and widely understood (etc., a.m., p.m., and the like). You may also see acronyms, which pluck the first letter from each word of a name (NATO for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or AIDS for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, for example). Conversational English may drop some words and break a few rules. The example sentence for conversational English at the beginning of this article, for instance, has no subject or verb, a giant no-no in formal writing but perfectly acceptable at this level of language. Formal English is the pickiest location in Grammarland. When you speak or write in formal English, you follow every rule (including some you never heard of), avoid slang and abbreviations, and trot out your best vocabulary. Think about your audience when you’re selecting friendspeak, conversational English, or formal English. What impression are you trying to give? Let your goals guide you. Also consider the situation. At work you may rely on conversational English when you run into your boss at the coffee machine, but not when you’re submitting a quarterly report. At school, choosing conversational English is okay for a teacher-student chat in the cafeteria, but not for homework. More on situation and language appears in the next section, “Matching Message to Situation.” Can you identify levels of formality? Check out this example: EXAMPLE: Place these expressions in order of formality, from the most formal to the least. Note: Two expressions may tie. For example, your answer may be A, B and C — in which case expression A is the most formal and expressions B and C are on the same, more casual level. A. sketchy block B. That is a dangerous neighborhood. C. Where gangs rule. ANSWER: B, C, A. Expression B is the most formal because it follows all the conventions of English. Every word is in the dictionary, and the sentence is complete. Expression C, on the other hand, is an incomplete sentence and is therefore less formal. Also, in Expression C the verb rule has an unusual meaning. Your readers or listeners probably understand that gangs aren’t official authorities but instead wield a lot of unofficial power. The statement is more conversational than formal. Expression A employs slang (sketchy means “slightly dangerous”), so it’s closer to friendspeak than to formal English.

Article / Updated 05-02-2018

When you’re listening or reading, you probably note the difference between formal and informal language constantly — maybe unconsciously. Knowing levels of language, however, isn’t enough. You also need to decide what level of formality to employ when you’re speaking and writing. Before you choose, consider these factors: Your audience. If your message is going to a person with more power or higher status than you (an employee writing to a boss or a student to a teacher, for example), you should probably be more formal. If you’re speaking or writing to someone with less power or lower status than you, conversational English is fine. In a higher-to-lower situation, however, the person with more authority may wish to employ formal English in order to serve as a role model or to establish a professional atmosphere. When you’re dealing with peers, conversational English is a good bet. Only your closest friends rate — and understand — friendspeak. The situation. At the company picnic or in the cafeteria, most people opt for less formal speech. Similarly, at get-togethers with family and friends, formal language may sound stiff and unfriendly. When you’re in an official meeting with a client or teacher, however, formal English is safer. The format. When you’re speaking you have more leeway than when you’re writing. Why? Unless you’re reading prepared remarks, you probably can’t produce perfect sentences. Not many people can! The writing in texts, tweets, and instant messages tends to be in conversational English or, with your buddies, in friendspeak. Exceptions occur, though. A text to a client should be more formal than one to a friend, and journalists or officials often tweet in formal English. Email can go either way. Because it’s fast, the dropped or shortened forms of conversational English are generally acceptable, but if you think the reader expects you to honor tradition (the written equivalent of a curtsy or a hat-tip), go for formal English. Always employ formal English for business letters, school reports, and similar paper-based communication. Listen to those around you or read others’ work that appears in the same context you’re navigating. Unless you want to stand out, aim for the same level of formality you hear or see. Think about the audience, situation, and format. In the following example, decide whether the writing or speech is appropriate or inappropriate. Text from a department head to the CEO requesting a salary increase: greenlight $20K or I walk Inappropriate. Think about the power ladder here. The CEO is on the top rung, and the department head somewhere farther down. Even though texts tend to be informal, this one is about money. When you ask for money, be polite! To be polite in Grammarland is to use formal, correct language. The department head should have written something like “If you cannot raise my salary by $20,000, I will seek employment elsewhere.” Practice questions Think about the audience, situation, and format. In the following two questions, decide whether the writing or speech is appropriate or inappropriate. Cover letter from a job applicant to a potential employer, a tech start-up: Attached please find my resume, pursuant to your advertisement of July 15th. Tweet from the president to the members of the local garden association: Meeting tonight at 8 p.m. #springplanting Answers to practice questions Inappropriate. Surprised? Job applicants should be formal, but they should also avoid outdated expressions and overly stuffy language, especially for a tech start-up where innovation and rule-breaking are valued. “Attached please find” should be “Attached is.” “Pursuant to” would be better as “in response to.” Appropriate. Tweets may have no more than 280 characters, so the number of spaces, letters, and symbols can't go above that number. Dropping words is fine in this format, as is directing people who are interested in attending the meeting to other tweets about spring planting.