{"appState":{"pageLoadApiCallsStatus":true},"categoryState":{"relatedCategories":{"headers":{"timestamp":"2022-11-09T08:01:09+00:00"},"categoryId":33762,"data":{"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","image":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"parentCategory":{"categoryId":33756,"title":"Science","slug":"science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"}},"childCategories":[],"description":"The basic building blocks of reality, explained. Plus, advanced organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and practice problems, all right here.","relatedArticles":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles?category=33762&offset=0&size=5"},"hasArticle":true,"hasBook":true,"articleCount":186,"bookCount":11},"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"relatedCategoriesLoadedStatus":"success"},"listState":{"list":{"count":10,"total":187,"items":[{"headers":{"creationTime":"2022-11-07T16:40:29+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-11-08T14:15:33+00:00","timestamp":"2022-11-08T15:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"Chemistry All-in-One For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"chemistry all-in-one for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"chemistry-all-in-one-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Chemistry covers all kinds of stuff. Sometimes you might not be sure where to start when you are first given a set of problems and told to go forth and succeed.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Chemistry covers all kinds of stuff. Sometimes you might not be sure where to start when you are first given a set of problems and told to go forth and succeed. Sometimes it’s converting metric units, writing ionic formulas, naming covalent compounds, balancing reactions, or dealing with extensive and intensive properties.\r\n\r\nThis Cheat Sheet is designed to give you some help on a few of the trickier things you might encounter so that when you are done looking it over you can go forth and succeed!","description":"Chemistry covers all kinds of stuff. Sometimes you might not be sure where to start when you are first given a set of problems and told to go forth and succeed. Sometimes it’s converting metric units, writing ionic formulas, naming covalent compounds, balancing reactions, or dealing with extensive and intensive properties.\r\n\r\nThis Cheat Sheet is designed to give you some help on a few of the trickier things you might encounter so that when you are done looking it over you can go forth and succeed!","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":35209,"name":"Christopher R. Hren","slug":"christopher-r-hren","description":" <p><b>Christopher R. Hren </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b>John T. Moore, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/35209"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33762,"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251836,"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251836"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250992,"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation","slug":"add-subtract-exponential-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250992"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":295574,"slug":"chemistry-all-in-one-for-dummies-chapter-quizzes-online","isbn":"9781119908319","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119908310/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119908310/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119908310-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119908310/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119908310/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"title":"Chemistry All-in-One For Dummies (+ Chapter Quizzes Online)","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"35209\">Christopher R. Hren</b> </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b>John T. Moore, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer. <p><b>Christopher R. Hren </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b><b data-author-id=\"9159\">John T. Moore</b>, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer. <p><b>Christopher R. Hren </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b>John T. Moore, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b><b data-author-id=\"9161\">Peter J. Mikulecky</b>, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":35209,"name":"Christopher R. Hren","slug":"christopher-r-hren","description":" <p><b>Christopher R. Hren </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b>John T. Moore, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/35209"}},{"authorId":9159,"name":"John T. Moore","slug":"john-t-moore","description":" <p><b>Christopher R. Hren </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b>John T. Moore, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9159"}},{"authorId":9161,"name":"Peter J. Mikulecky","slug":"peter-j-mikulecky","description":" <p><b>Christopher R. Hren </b>has taught high school chemistry, honors chemistry, and AP Chemistry for more than 15 years. <p><b>John T. Moore, EdD,</b> has taught chemistry at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, for more than 40 years. <p><b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches science and math at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy, and is a technical writer. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9161"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119908319&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-636a6f2eb4b65\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119908319&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-636a6f2eb5a50\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":0,"title":"","slug":null,"categoryList":[],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/"}}],"content":[{"title":"Converting metric units","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Because chemists must be able to communicate their measurements to other chemists all over the world, they need to speak the same measurement language. This language is the SI system of measurement, related to the metric system.</p>\n<p>Below is a chart of the most commonly used metric prefixes, their abbreviations, and how they relate to a metric base unit. Remember, the metric system is based on 10s, so each time you are converting from one unit to another you can just count the number of jumps between prefixes to have an idea of what your conversion should be.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Prefix</strong></td>\n<td><strong>Abbreviation</strong></td>\n<td><strong>Meaning</strong></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>kilo-</td>\n<td>k</td>\n<td>1,000 or 10<sup>3</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hecto-</td>\n<td>h</td>\n<td>100 or 10<sup>2</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>deka- or deca-</td>\n<td>da</td>\n<td>10 or 10<sup>1</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>deci-</td>\n<td>d</td>\n<td>0.1 or 10<sup>–1</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>centi-</td>\n<td>c</td>\n<td>0.01 or 10<sup>–2</sup></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>milli-</td>\n<td>m</td>\n<td>0.001 or 10<sup>–3</sup></td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>For example, if you want to convert 500 ml to liters, all you have to do is multiply that by the conversion shown in the chart for milli as shown below. Be sure to cancel out your units!</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-295577\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/chem-formula.png\" alt=\"equation to convert 500 ml to liters\" width=\"220\" height=\"78\" /></p>\n<p><strong>Writing the formulas of ionic compounds</strong></p>\n<p>A quick way to determine the formula of an ionic compound (remember ionic compounds are metals bonded to nonmetals) is to use the <em>crisscross rule</em>. The crisscross rule uses the ionic charges of the ions to predict the formula of the ionic compound. It doesn’t work every time but it is a very useful method for writing many ionic formulas. Check it out as shown here:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-295578\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119908319-fgcs01.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram of crisscross rule in chemistry\" width=\"250\" height=\"108\" /></p>\n<p>Take the numerical value of the metal ion’s superscript (forget about the charge symbol) and move it to the bottom right-hand side of the nonmetal’s symbol — as a subscript. Then take the numerical value of the nonmetal’s superscript and make it the subscript of the metal. (Note that if the numerical value is 1, it’s just understood and not shown.)</p>\n<p>So, in this example, you make magnesium’s 2 a subscript of bromine and make bromine’s 1 a subscript of magnesium (but because it’s 1, you don’t show it), and you get the formula MgBr<sub>2</sub>.</p>\n"},{"title":"Naming covalent compounds","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Covalent compounds are nonmetals to nonmetals. These differ from ionic compounds in that their names clearly specify how many of each type of atom participate in the compound. The table below shows you the prefixes used when naming covalent compounds.</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Number of Atoms</strong></td>\n<td width=\"312\"><strong>Prefix</strong></td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>1</td>\n<td>mono-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2</td>\n<td>di-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3</td>\n<td>tri-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4</td>\n<td>tetra-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5</td>\n<td>penta-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6</td>\n<td>hexa-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7</td>\n<td>hepta-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>8</td>\n<td>octa-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>9</td>\n<td>nona-</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>10</td>\n<td>deca-</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>You can attach the prefixes in the table above to any of the elements in a covalent compound, as exemplified by SO<sub>3</sub> (sulfur trioxide) and N<sub>2</sub>O (dinitrogen monoxide). The second element in each compound receives the &#8211;<em>ide</em> suffix, as in ionic compounds (which we discuss earlier in this chapter).</p>\n<p>In the case of covalent compounds, where cations or anions aren’t involved, the more electronegative element (in other words, the element that’s closer to the upper right-hand corner of the periodic table) tends to be named second.</p>\n<p>Finally, if the compound only has 1 atom for the first element you can leave off mono as the prefix. For example, you don’t call CO<sub>2</sub> monocarbon dioxide. Instead, you just call it carbon dioxide.</p>\n"},{"title":"Balancing reactions","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Balancing chemical reactions can be a real challenge for some people. Sometimes just getting started is a real challenge. The example below shows how to balance a combustion reaction. There is a good chance that if you are here reading this you might be stuck on a combustion reaction, so make sure to read on. Even if not, this example is going to give you a solid idea of how to go about balancing any reaction you encounter.</p>\n<ol>\n<li>\n<p><strong>Start with the unbalanced reaction written out</strong>.</p>\n<p>C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>(<em>g</em>) + O<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) ®CO<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) + H<sub>2</sub>O(<em>g</em>)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p><strong>Balance the carbon atoms first</strong>.</p>\n<p>Remember: You want to wait until the end to balance hydrogen and oxygen atoms. You have 4 carbon atoms on the left and 1 carbon atom on the right, so put a coefficient of 4 in front of the carbon dioxide:</p>\n<p>C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>(<em>g</em>) + O<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) ® 4 CO<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) + H<sub>2</sub>O(<em>g</em>)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p><strong><strong>When all non-hydrogen and non-oxygen atoms are balanced, balance the hydrogen atoms.</strong></p>\n<p>Carbon is the only other atom in this example, so you can move on to hydrogen now. You have 10 hydrogen atoms on the left and 2 hydrogen atoms on the right, so use a coefficient of 5 in front of the water on the right:C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>(<em>g</em>) + O<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) ®4 CO<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) + <strong>5</strong> H<sub>2</sub>O(<em>g</em>)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p><strong>Balance the oxygen atoms</strong>.</p>\n<p>You have 2 oxygen atoms on the left and a total of 13 oxygen atoms on the right [(4 × 2) + (5 × 1) = 13]. What can you multiply 2 with in order for it to equal 13? How about 6.5?</p>\n<p>C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>(<em>g</em>) + <strong>6.5</strong> O<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) ®4 CO<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) + 5 H<sub>2</sub>O(<em>g</em>)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p><strong>Multiply all coefficients in the equation to get the lowest <em>whole-number</em> ratio of coefficients</strong>.</p>\n<p>For this example, multiply the entire equation by 2 (just the coefficients, please) in order to generate whole numbers:</p>\n<p>[C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>(<em>g</em>) + 6.5 O<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>®4 CO<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) + 5 H<sub>2</sub>O(<em>g</em>)] ×2</p>\n<p>Multiplying every coefficient by 2 (don’t touch the subscripts!) gives you</p>\n<p>2 C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>(<em>g</em>) + 13 O<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) ®8 CO<sub>2</sub>(<em>g</em>) + 10 H<sub>2</sub>O(<em>g</em>)</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p><strong>Check the atom count on both sides of the equation to ensure that the equation is balanced and the coefficients are in the lowest whole-number ratio</strong>.</p>\n</li>\n</ol>\n<p>This is a pretty complex example and hopefully it helps you out. Sometimes, though, all you might need to do is add a single coefficient of 2 or 3 in front of one compound. Just stay organized and keep things simple and you’ll be balancing reactions in no time!</p>\n"},{"title":"Extensive and intensive properties","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>There are all kinds of ways you can classify matter. One is to look at the different physical properties that that matter has. There are two major types of physical properties:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Extensive Properties:</strong> properties that depend on the amount of matter present\n<p>Examples: mass, volume, length, width or anything else that depends entirely on how much of the substance you have</li>\n<li><strong>Intensive Properties:</strong> properties that don’t depend on the amount of matter present\n<p>Examples: density, malleability, ductileness, hardness, melting point</li>\n</ul>\n<p>A helpful way to remember this is that intensive properties rely on what is “in”-side the matter, with the “in” signifying <em>intensive</em> and how it doesn’t matter how much of the matter is present.</p>\n<p>Extensive properties rely on the “ext”-erior of the matter, with the “ext” signifying <em>extensive</em> and the fact that now, the amount of what you see on the exterior of the matter does impact the property.</p>\n<p>Some physical properties are <em>extensive properties,</em> properties that depend on the amount of matter present. Mass and volume are extensive properties. A large chunk of gold has a larger mass and volume than a smaller chunk.</p>\n<p><em>Intensive properties,</em> however, don’t depend on the amount of matter present. Hardness is an intensive property. A large chunk of gold, for example, has the same hardness as a small chunk of gold. The mass and volume of these two chunks are different (extensive properties), but the hardness is the same.</p>\n<p>Intensive properties are especially useful to chemists because they can use intensive properties to identify a substance.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-11-07T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":295575},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2018-04-24T01:43:18+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-10-26T15:57:20+00:00","timestamp":"2022-10-26T18:01:02+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","strippedTitle":"how to convert between units using conversion factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn how to quickly convert between measurement units using this handy conversion-factor chart and some simple algebra!","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"A <em>conversion factor</em> uses your knowledge of the relationships between units to convert from one unit to another. For example, if you know that there are 2.54 centimeters in every inch (or 2.2 pounds in every kilogram or 101.3 kilopascals in every atmosphere), then converting between those units becomes simple algebra. It is important to know <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/science/chemistry/chemistry-for-dummies-cheat-sheet-208625/\">some common conversions</a> of temperature, size, and pressure as well as metric prefixes.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Conversion factor table</h2>\r\nThe following table includes some useful conversion factors.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251837\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0501.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0501\" width=\"500\" height=\"708\" />\r\n\r\n \r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Using conversion factors example</h2>\r\nThe following example shows how to use a basic conversion factor to fix non-SI units.\r\n\r\nDr. Geekmajor absentmindedly measures the mass of a sample to be 0.75 lb and records his measurement in his lab notebook. His astute lab assistant, who wants to save the doctor some embarrassment, knows that there are 2.2 lbs in every kilogram. The assistant quickly converts the doctor’s measurement to SI units. What does she get?\r\n\r\nThe answer is <strong>0.34 kg</strong>.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251838\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0502.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0502\" width=\"201\" height=\"51\" />\r\n\r\nLet’s try another example. A chemistry student, daydreaming during lab, suddenly looks down to find that he’s measured the volume of his sample to be 1.5 cubic <em>inches.</em> What does he get when he converts this quantity to cubic centimeters?\r\n\r\nThe answer is <strong>25 cm<sup>3</sup></strong>.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251839\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0503.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0503\" width=\"404\" height=\"63\" />\r\n\r\nRookie chemists often mistakenly assume that if there are 2.54 centimeters in every inch, then there are 2.54 cubic centimeters in every cubic inch. No! Although this assumption seems logical at first glance, it leads to catastrophically wrong answers. Remember that cubic units are units of volume and that the formula for volume is\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251840\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0504.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0504\" width=\"169\" height=\"23\" />\r\n\r\nImagine 1 cubic inch as a cube with 1-inch sides. The cube’s volume is\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251841\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0505.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0505\" width=\"164\" height=\"24\" />\r\n\r\nNow consider the dimensions of the cube in centimeters:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251842\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0506.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0506\" width=\"211\" height=\"19\" />\r\n\r\nCalculate the volume using these measurements, and you get\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251843\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0507.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0507\" width=\"305\" height=\"24\" />\r\n\r\nThis volume is much greater than 2.54 cm<sup><span style=\"font-size: small;\">3</span></sup>! To convert units of area or volume using length measurements, square or cube everything in your conversion factor, not just the units, and everything works out just fine.","description":"A <em>conversion factor</em> uses your knowledge of the relationships between units to convert from one unit to another. For example, if you know that there are 2.54 centimeters in every inch (or 2.2 pounds in every kilogram or 101.3 kilopascals in every atmosphere), then converting between those units becomes simple algebra. It is important to know <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/science/chemistry/chemistry-for-dummies-cheat-sheet-208625/\">some common conversions</a> of temperature, size, and pressure as well as metric prefixes.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Conversion factor table</h2>\r\nThe following table includes some useful conversion factors.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251837\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0501.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0501\" width=\"500\" height=\"708\" />\r\n\r\n \r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Using conversion factors example</h2>\r\nThe following example shows how to use a basic conversion factor to fix non-SI units.\r\n\r\nDr. Geekmajor absentmindedly measures the mass of a sample to be 0.75 lb and records his measurement in his lab notebook. His astute lab assistant, who wants to save the doctor some embarrassment, knows that there are 2.2 lbs in every kilogram. The assistant quickly converts the doctor’s measurement to SI units. What does she get?\r\n\r\nThe answer is <strong>0.34 kg</strong>.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251838\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0502.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0502\" width=\"201\" height=\"51\" />\r\n\r\nLet’s try another example. A chemistry student, daydreaming during lab, suddenly looks down to find that he’s measured the volume of his sample to be 1.5 cubic <em>inches.</em> What does he get when he converts this quantity to cubic centimeters?\r\n\r\nThe answer is <strong>25 cm<sup>3</sup></strong>.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251839\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0503.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0503\" width=\"404\" height=\"63\" />\r\n\r\nRookie chemists often mistakenly assume that if there are 2.54 centimeters in every inch, then there are 2.54 cubic centimeters in every cubic inch. No! Although this assumption seems logical at first glance, it leads to catastrophically wrong answers. Remember that cubic units are units of volume and that the formula for volume is\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251840\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0504.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0504\" width=\"169\" height=\"23\" />\r\n\r\nImagine 1 cubic inch as a cube with 1-inch sides. The cube’s volume is\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251841\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0505.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0505\" width=\"164\" height=\"24\" />\r\n\r\nNow consider the dimensions of the cube in centimeters:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251842\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0506.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0506\" width=\"211\" height=\"19\" />\r\n\r\nCalculate the volume using these measurements, and you get\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251843\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0507.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0507\" width=\"305\" height=\"24\" />\r\n\r\nThis volume is much greater than 2.54 cm<sup><span style=\"font-size: small;\">3</span></sup>! To convert units of area or volume using length measurements, square or cube everything in your conversion factor, not just the units, and everything works out just fine.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9160,"name":"Chris Hren","slug":"chris-hren","description":" <p><b>Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9160"}},{"authorId":9161,"name":"Peter J. Mikulecky","slug":"peter-j-mikulecky","description":" <p><b>Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9161"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33762,"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Conversion factor table","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Using conversion factors example","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250992,"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation","slug":"add-subtract-exponential-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250992"}},{"articleId":250969,"title":"How to Multiply and Divide in Scientific Notation","slug":"multiply-divide-scientific-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250969"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250992,"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation","slug":"add-subtract-exponential-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250992"}},{"articleId":250969,"title":"How to Multiply and Divide in Scientific Notation","slug":"multiply-divide-scientific-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250969"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282070,"slug":"chemistry-workbook-for-dummies-with-online-practice-3rd-edition","isbn":"9781119357452","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119357454-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/chemistry-workbook-for-dummies-3rd-edition-cover-9781119357452-204x255.jpg","width":204,"height":255},"title":"Chemistry Workbook For Dummies with Online Practice","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<p><b data-author-id=\"9160\">Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b data-author-id=\"9161\">Peter J. 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If a test question involves identifying a compound as a carbohydrate, count the atoms and see if they fit that ratio. Carbohydrates are formed by the chemical reaction process of <i>condensation,</i> or <i>dehydration synthesis,</i> and broken apart by <i>hydrolysis,</i> the cleavage of a chemical by a reaction that adds water. There are several subcategories of carbohydrates:</p>\n<p><b><i>Monosaccharides</i></b><i>,</i> also called <i>monomers</i> or <i>simple sugars,</i> are the building blocks of larger carbohydrate molecules and are a source of stored energy. Key monomers include <i>glucose</i> (also known as blood sugar), <i>fructose,</i> and <i>galactose.</i></p>\n<p>These three have the same numbers of carbon (6), hydrogen (12), and oxygen (6) atoms in each molecule — formally written as C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6 </sub>— but the bonding arrangements are different. Molecules with this kind of relationship are called <i>isomers.</i> Two important five-carbon monosaccharides (pentoses) are <i>ribose,</i> a component of ribonucleic acids (RNA), and <i>deoxyribose,</i> a component of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA).</p>\n<p><b><i>Disaccharides</i></b><i>,</i> or <i>dimers,</i> are sugars formed by the bonding of two monosaccharides, including <i>sucrose</i> (table sugar), <i>lactose,</i> and <i>maltose.</i></p>\n<p><b><i>Oligosaccharides</i></b> (from the Greek <i>oligo,</i> a few, and <i>sacchar,</i> sugar) contain three to nine simple sugars that serve many functions. They are found on plasma membranes of cells where they function in cell-to-cell recognition.</p>\n<p><i>Polysaccharides,</i> or <i>polymers,</i> are formed when many monomers bond into long, chainlike molecules. <i>Glycogen</i> is the primary polymer in the body; it breaks down to individual monomers of glucose, an immediate source of energy for cells.</p>\n"},{"title":"Lipids","thumb":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/462583.image1.jpg","width":535,"height":139},"content":"<p>Commonly known as fats, these molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes nitrogen and phosphorous. Insoluble in water because they contain a preponderance of nonpolar bonds, lipid molecules have six times more stored energy than carbohydrate molecules. Upon hydrolysis, however, most fats form glycerol and fatty acids.</p>\n<p>A fatty acid is a long, straight chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached. If the carbon chain has its full number of hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid is <i>saturated</i> (examples include butter and lard). If the carbon chain has less than its full number of hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid is <i>unsaturated</i> (examples include margarine and vegetable oils). All fatty acids contain a carboxyl or acid group, –COOH, at the end of the carbon chain.</p>\n<p><i>Phospholipids,</i> as the name suggests, contain phosphorus and often nitrogen and form a bilayer in the cell membrane. <i>Steroids</i> are fat-soluble compounds such as vitamins A or D and hormones that often serve to regulate metabolic processes.</p>\n"},{"title":"Proteins","thumb":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/462584.image2.jpg","width":500,"height":400},"content":"<p>Among the largest molecules, proteins can reach molecular weights of some 40 million atomic units. Proteins always contain the four HONC elements — hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon — and sometimes contain phosphorus and sulfur. The human body builds protein molecules using 20 different kinds of smaller molecules called <i>amino acids</i>.</p>\n<p>Each amino acid molecule is composed of an amino group, –NH<sub>2</sub>, and a carboxyl group, –COOH, with a carbon chain between them. Amino acids link together by <i>peptide bonds</i> to form long molecules called <i>polypeptides,</i> which then assemble into proteins. These bonds form when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of another molecule, releasing a molecule of water <i>(dehydration synthesis reaction).</i></p>\n<p>Examples of proteins in the body include <i>antibodies, hemoglobin</i> (the red pigment in red blood cells), and <i>enzymes</i> (catalysts that accelerate reactions in the body).</p>\n"},{"title":"Nucleic acids","thumb":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/462585.image3.jpg","width":216,"height":400},"content":"<p>These long molecules, found primarily in the cell’s nucleus, act as the body’s genetic blueprint. They’re comprised of smaller building blocks called <i>nucleotides.</i> Each nucleotide, in turn, is composed of a five-carbon sugar <i>(deoxyribose</i> or <i>ribose),</i> a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.</p>\n<p>The nitrogenous bases in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) are <i>adenine, thymine, cytosine,</i> and <i>guanine;</i> they always pair off A-T and C-G. In RNA (ribonucleic acid), which occurs in a single strand, thymine is replaced by <i>uracil,</i> so the nucleotides pair off A-U and C-G.</p>\n<p>In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick published their discovery of the three-dimensional structure of DNA — a polymer that looks like a ladder twisted into a coil. 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Chemistry II is more about solving calculations. In fact, Chemistry II has a lot more calculations and math than your Chemistry I class did. In your Chemistry II class, you need to master several formulas so you can calculate different mathematical problems, ranging from kinetics, different types of equilibrium, thermochemistry, and electrochemistry.\r\n\r\nThis Cheat Sheet can serve as a quick reference to how to solve kinetics, thermodynamics, and different types of equilibrium problems.","description":"Chemistry II is more than fires and smelly explosions. Chemistry II is more about solving calculations. In fact, Chemistry II has a lot more calculations and math than your Chemistry I class did. 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Knowing the concepts of kinetics can help your understanding of why some reactions are fast and others slow and why some simple reactions are slow and other, more complex reactions are fast.</p>\n<p>The <i>reaction rate</i> (the speed of reaction) is the change in the concentration of a reactant or product per the change in time. You can write it as:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323984.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"227\" height=\"29\" /></p>\n<p>Chemists normally measure concentration in terms of molarity, M, and time is usually expressed in seconds, s, which means that the units of the reaction rate are M/s. You can express the number of units in other ways such as:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323985.image1.jpg\" alt=\"image1.jpg\" width=\"174\" height=\"24\" /></p>\n"},{"title":"How to solve homogeneous equilibrium problems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The <i>equilibrium constant</i> describes the relationship between the amounts of the reactants and the products at a certain temperature. You&#8217;ll need to know the equilibrium constant as you study Chemistry II. For the general equilibrium:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323988.image0.png\" alt=\"image0.png\" width=\"111\" height=\"13\" /></p>\n<p>the equilibrium constant expression is:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323989.image1.jpg\" alt=\"image1.jpg\" width=\"81\" height=\"37\" /></p>\n<p>In the expression, K is the equilibrium constant, the subscript <i>c</i> indicates this constant is expressed in terms of concentrations (not pressures, p), the brackets (as usual) stand for molar (moles/L) concentration, the uppercase letters are the reactant and product species, and the lowercase superscripts are the coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.</p>\n"},{"title":"Solving acid-base equilibrium problems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The <i>acid and base equilibrium constant</i> expressions describe the relationship between the amounts of reactants and products in aqueous acid-base systems. For the following general weak-acid equilibrium:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323992.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"162\" height=\"16\" /></p>\n<p>the equilibrium constant expression is:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323993.image1.jpg\" alt=\"image1.jpg\" width=\"89\" height=\"36\" /></p>\n<p>For a general weak-base equilibrium:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323994.image2.jpg\" alt=\"image2.jpg\" width=\"235\" height=\"16\" /></p>\n<p>the equilibrium constant expression is:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323995.image3.jpg\" alt=\"image3.jpg\" width=\"107\" height=\"36\" /></p>\n<p>The concentration of water (or any pure liquid or solvent or solid) does appear in the equilibrium constant expression. K is the equilibrium constant, the subscript <i>b</i> indicates that this is an equilibrium constant expression for a weak base, and the brackets indicate molar concentrations.</p>\n"},{"title":"Calculating solubility equilibrium problems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The <i>solubility product equation</i> is used to describe the equilibrium situation when a not-so-soluble salt is dissolving in water. For the general dissociation of a sparingly soluble salt:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/323998.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"192\" height=\"16\" /></p>\n<p>In this equation, <i>x</i>+ and <i>z</i>– are the magnitude of the positive and negative charge, respectively; the equilibrium constant expression (solubility product expression) is</p>\n<p>K<sub>sp</sub> = [M<i><sup>x</sup></i><sup>+</sup>]<sup>a</sup>[X<i><sup>z</sup></i><i><sup>–</sup></i>]<sup>b</sup></p>\n"},{"title":"Tackling thermodynamics problems","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>The <em>Gibbs Free Energy</em> is the best indicator about whether a reaction will be spontaneous or nonspontaneous. You&#8217;ll need to know this as you study Chemistry II. It has the form:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/324001.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"171\" height=\"15\" /></p>\n<p>In this equation ΔG° is the Gibbs Free Energy of a reaction under standard conditions of 1 atm (or 1 bar) for gases and 1 M for solutions at 25°C; ΔH° is the enthalpy of the reaction under standard conditions; T is the Kelvin temperature; and ΔS° is the entropy of the reaction under standard conditions.</p>\n<p>A spontaneous process has °G &lt; 0. A nonspontaneous process has ΔG &gt; 0. When °G = 0, the process is at equilibrium.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-04-08T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":208297},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:56:51+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-02-24T15:39:39+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:13+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"Organic Chemistry I For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"organic chemistry i for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"organic-chemistry-i-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Get a good grasp of the basics of organic chemistry, including the periodic table of elements and reactive centers.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"You won't get very far in your <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/biology/the-basics-of-organic-chemistry/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">study of organic chemistry</a> without the periodic table of elements and an understanding of the common functional groups (or reactive centers) that dictate how most of a compound's chemical reactions occur.","description":"You won't get very far in your <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/biology/the-basics-of-organic-chemistry/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">study of organic chemistry</a> without the periodic table of elements and an understanding of the common functional groups (or reactive centers) that dictate how most of a compound's chemical reactions occur.","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9321,"name":"Arthur Winter","slug":"arthur-winter","description":" <p><B>Arthur Winter, PhD, </b>is the author of the popular <i>Organic Chemistry Help!</i> website chemhelper.com and <i>Organic Chemistry I For Dummies</i>. 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His professional focus is on the chemistry of magneto-organic materials. </p> ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9321"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119293378&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b218a1c3\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119293378&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b218ac21\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":193338,"title":"Common Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry","slug":"common-functional-groups-in-organic-chemistry","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193338"}},{"articleId":193348,"title":"Periodic Table of Elements","slug":"periodic-table-of-elements-2","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193348"}}],"content":[{"title":"Common functional groups in organic chemistry","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>In organic chemistry, functional groups (or reactive centers) are small structural units within molecules that dictate how most of the compound&#8217;s chemical reactions occur. Know these common functional groups you will run into in organic chemistry:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/183463.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"794\" /></p>\n"},{"title":"Periodic Table of Elements","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Studying the elements of the periodic table is vital for understanding organic chemistry. So that you don&#8217;t have to memorize each element, they&#8217;re grouped together by their properties.</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/195509.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"373\" /></p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Two years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2022-02-24T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":209153},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-27T16:48:24+00:00","modifiedTime":"2022-02-17T22:06:59+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:19:09+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"Chemistry: 1001 Practice Problems For Dummies Cheat Sheet","strippedTitle":"chemistry: 1001 practice problems for dummies cheat sheet","slug":"1001-chemistry-practice-problems-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"This Cheat Sheet provides some basic formulas, techniques, and tips you can use to help solve chemistry problems.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Solving chemistry problems is a great way to master the various laws and calculations you encounter in a typical chemistry class. This Cheat Sheet provides some basic formulas, techniques, and tips you can refer to regularly to make solving chemistry problems a breeze (well, maybe not a breeze, but definitely easier).","description":"Solving chemistry problems is a great way to master the various laws and calculations you encounter in a typical chemistry class. This Cheat Sheet provides some basic formulas, techniques, and tips you can refer to regularly to make solving chemistry problems a breeze (well, maybe not a breeze, but definitely easier).","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9451,"name":"Heather Hattori","slug":"heather-hattori","description":" <p><b>Heather Hattori</b> has taught both high school and college level chemistry during her 30+ years in education.</p> <p><b>Richard H. Langley, PhD,</b> is on the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches,Texas, where he teaches chemistry. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9451"}},{"authorId":9452,"name":"Richard H. Langley","slug":"richard-h-langley","description":" <p><b>Heather Hattori</b> has taught both high school and college level chemistry during her 30+ years in education.</p> <p><b>Richard H. Langley, PhD,</b> is on the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches,Texas, where he teaches chemistry. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9452"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33762,"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":156958,"title":"Writing Electron Configurations","slug":"writing-electron-configurations","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156958"}},{"articleId":156959,"title":"Formulas for Solving Problems Dealing with Acids and Bases","slug":"formulas-for-solving-problems-dealing-with-acids-and-bases","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156959"}},{"articleId":156913,"title":"Keeping Track of Units in Chemistry Calculations","slug":"keeping-track-of-units-in-chemistry-calculations","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156913"}},{"articleId":156914,"title":"Balancing Chemical Equations","slug":"balancing-chemical-equations","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156914"}},{"articleId":154294,"title":"Special Limit Formulas in Calculus","slug":"special-limit-formulas-in-calculus","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/154294"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251836,"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251836"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250992,"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation","slug":"add-subtract-exponential-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250992"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":281916,"slug":"chemistry-1001-practice-problems-for-dummies-free-online-practice","isbn":"9781119883531","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119883539/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119883539/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119883539-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119883539/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119883539/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/9781119883531-204x255.jpg","width":204,"height":255},"title":"Chemistry: 1001 Practice Problems For Dummies (+ Free Online Practice)","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><p><b><b data-author-id=\"9451\">Heather Hattori</b></b> has taught both high school and college level chemistry during her 30+ years in education.</p> <p><b>Richard H. Langley, PhD,</b> is on the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches,Texas, where he teaches chemistry. <p><b>Heather Hattori</b> has taught both high school and college level chemistry during her 30+ years in education.</p> <p><b><b data-author-id=\"9452\">Richard H. Langley</b>, PhD,</b> is on the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches,Texas, where he teaches chemistry.</p>","authors":[{"authorId":9451,"name":"Heather Hattori","slug":"heather-hattori","description":" <p><b>Heather Hattori</b> has taught both high school and college level chemistry during her 30+ years in education.</p> <p><b>Richard H. Langley, PhD,</b> is on the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches,Texas, where he teaches chemistry. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9451"}},{"authorId":9452,"name":"Richard H. Langley","slug":"richard-h-langley","description":" <p><b>Heather Hattori</b> has taught both high school and college level chemistry during her 30+ years in education.</p> <p><b>Richard H. Langley, PhD,</b> is on the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches,Texas, where he teaches chemistry. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9452"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119883531&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1d69737\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119883531&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b1d6a17c\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Cheat Sheet","articleList":[{"articleId":156913,"title":"Keeping Track of Units in Chemistry Calculations","slug":"keeping-track-of-units-in-chemistry-calculations","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156913"}},{"articleId":156914,"title":"Balancing Chemical Equations","slug":"balancing-chemical-equations","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156914"}},{"articleId":156959,"title":"Formulas for Solving Problems Dealing with Acids and Bases","slug":"formulas-for-solving-problems-dealing-with-acids-and-bases","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156959"}},{"articleId":156958,"title":"Writing Electron Configurations","slug":"writing-electron-configurations","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/156958"}}],"content":[{"title":"Keeping track of units in chemistry calculations","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>When completing a chemistry calculation, always write the number with the unit. Number, unit — it’s like having a first and last name.</p>\n<p>Consistently writing down the units allows you to see what cancels and helps you spot an error when units don’t cancel. For example, look at the following conversion from miles to kilometers. The correct setup gives you an answer in kilometers. The incorrect setup gives you an answer in square miles per kilometer, which doesn’t make sense.</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/412987.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"156\" /></p>\n"},{"title":"Balancing chemical equations","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>A chemical equation shows what happens in a chemical reaction. As in any equation, the elements on the left side of the equation (the reactants) must equal the elements on the right (the products). Here are just a few things to remember when balancing chemical equations:</p>\n<ul class=\"level-one\">\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Same elements in equal numbers: </b>For an equation to be balanced, it must have the same number of <i>each</i> element on each side of the equation. The mass of the reactants has to equal the mass of the products — remember the law of conservation of mass?</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Same charge: </b>If there’s a net charge on one side of the equation, the other side of the equation must have the same charge.</p>\n</li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"first-para\"><b>Unchanged chemical formulas: </b>Most importantly, never alter a chemical formula! Subscripts (and superscripts for that matter) do not magically change. Change only the coefficients.</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n"},{"title":"Formulas for solving problems dealing with acids and bases","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>Acid-base reactions and their associated calculations play a primary role in many chemical, biological, and environmental systems. Whether you’re determining hydrogen ion concentration, [H<sup>+</sup>]; hydroxide ion concentration, [OH<sup>˗</sup>]; pH; or pOH, an equation and a calculator are important tools to have in your toolbox. Following are some handy formulas for solving acid/base problems.</p>\n<h2>Calculating hydrogen or hydroxide ion concentration</h2>\n<p>The following equation allows you to calculate the hydrogen ion concentration, [H<sup>+</sup>], at 25°C if you know the hydroxide ion concentration, [OH<sup>–</sup>]; you can also find [OH<sup>–</sup>] if you know [H<sup>+</sup>]. Just divide 1 × 10<sup>–</sup><sup>14</sup> by the concentration given, and you get the concentration that you need.</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/412990.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"81\" /></p>\n<p class=\"article-tips tip\">To use scientific notation on your calculator, use the EE or EXP key (followed by the exponent) rather than the × 10^ keys.</p>\n<h2>Calculating hydrogen or hydroxide ion concentration from the pH or pOH</h2>\n<p>Be familiar with how to solve for [H<sup>+</sup>] or [OH<sup>–</sup>] when given the pH or pOH (or vice versa). Use the following formulas:</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/412991.image1.jpg\" alt=\"image1.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"129\" /></p>\n<p>Many scientific and graphing calculators differ in how they handle inputting values and taking logarithms, so know the proper keystroke order for your calculator. Be sure to review your calculator manual or look online.</p>\n<h2>Calculating pH when given the pOH</h2>\n<p>Calculating pH when you know the pOH (or vice versa) is probably the easiest of the acid-base calculations. Here’s the formula:</p>\n<blockquote><p>pH + pOH = 14</p></blockquote>\n<p>Simply subtract the given value from 14 (keeping significant digits in mind) to get the value that you need.</p>\n<h2>Doing titration calculations with a 1:1 acid-to-base ratio</h2>\n<p>When you’re given titration calculations where the acid and base are reacting in a 1:1 ratio according to the balanced equation, the following equation offers a quick and easy way to solve for either the concentration of one of the substances or the volume necessary to complete the titration:</p>\n<blockquote><p>M<sub>A</sub>V<sub>A</sub> = M<sub>B</sub>V<sub>B</sub></p></blockquote>\n<p>If the acid and base aren’t reacting in a 1:1 ratio, use stoichiometry (or dimensional analysis) to solve for your unknown quantity. By the way, stoichiometry works for the 1:1 ratio questions, too; it just takes one or two more steps.</p>\n<p class=\"article-tips remember\">Keep track of your units! Cancel what you need to get rid of and make sure that you still have the units you need in your final answer.</p>\n"},{"title":"Writing electron configurations","thumb":null,"image":null,"content":"<p>An <i>electron configuration</i> is a description of the relative locations of electrons in an atom or ion. Electron configurations are based primarily on three principles: the Aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.</p>\n<p>The most important thing to remember is that electrons fill orbitals from lowest energy to highest energy. Think about a hotel with many floors and a broken elevator; getting to the highest floor takes energy — lots of energy. Electrons conserve energy so that the lowest-energy level orbitals fill first.</p>\n<p>You can use the following diagram, which is sometimes referred to as the <i>diagonal rule, </i>as an aid when writing electron configurations. Notice that putting an electron in a 3d orbital takes more energy than putting one in a 4s orbital, because 3d orbitals are more complex.</p>\n<p>There are other ways to remember the order in which orbitals fill — you can memorize the sequence or use a periodic table.</p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/412993.image0.jpg\" alt=\"image0.jpg\" width=\"535\" height=\"399\" /></p>\n<p>You may have to write an electron configuration for an ion instead of an atom. If you need to write a configuration for a cation (positive ion), remember to <i>subtract</i> the number of electrons equal to the charge from the total number of electrons before starting. Likewise, if you’re writing a configuration for an anion (negative ion), remember to <i>add</i> the number of electrons equal to the charge to the total number of electrons before starting.</p>\n<p>Electron configurations only get more difficult as you choose elements with higher numbers of electrons. You can generally check your work by adding up all the superscripts to make sure that you have the right number of electrons. But note that some elements are exceptions to the diagonal rule.</p>\n<p>Your instructor or book should mention these elements and let you know if you’re responsible for knowing how to write their configurations.</p>\n"}],"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-07-19T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":207759},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T08:18:21+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-12-17T17:43:05+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:55+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"Molecules: Identifying Chiral Centers, Meso Compounds, and Diastereomers","strippedTitle":"molecules: identifying chiral centers, meso compounds, and diastereomers","slug":"how-to-identify-chiral-centers-in-a-molecule","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"Learn about chiral molecules and how to identify them. Also learn about meso compounds, which contain a plane of symmetry and are achiral.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Chiral molecules usually contain at least one carbon atom with four nonidentical substituents. Such a carbon atom is called a <i>chiral center</i> (or sometimes a <i>stereogenic center</i>), using organic-speak. Any molecule that contains a chiral center will be chiral, with the exception of a meso compound (see below for how to identify these).\r\n\r\nFor example, the compound shown here contains a carbon atom with four nonidentical substituents; this carbon atom is a chiral center, and the molecule itself is chiral, because it's nonsuperimposable on its mirror image.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 277px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/457504.image0.jpg\" alt=\"A chiral center.\" width=\"277\" height=\"116\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A chiral center</div>\r\n</div>\r\nYou need to be able to quickly spot chiral centers in molecules. All straight-chain alkyl group carbons (CH<sub>3</sub> or CH<sub>2</sub> units) will <i>not</i> be chiral centers because these groups have two or more identical groups (the hydrogens) attached to the carbons. Neither will carbons on double or triple bonds be chiral centers because they can't have bonds to four different groups.\r\n\r\nWhen looking at a molecule, look for carbons that are substituted with four different groups. See, for example, if you can spot the two chiral centers in the molecule shown here.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 214px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/457505.image1.jpg\" alt=\"A molecule with two chiral centers.\" width=\"214\" height=\"97\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A molecule with two chiral centers</div>\r\n</div>\r\nBecause CH<sub>3</sub> and CH<sub>2</sub> groups cannot be chiral centers, this molecule has only three carbons that could be chiral centers. The two leftmost possibilities, identified in the next figure, have four nonidentical groups and are chiral centers, but the one on the far right has two identical methyl (CH<sub>3</sub>) groups and so is not a chiral center.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 388px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/457506.image2.jpg\" alt=\"The chiral centers in a long molecule.\" width=\"388\" height=\"190\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The chiral centers in a long molecule</div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div></div>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >How to identify molecules as meso compounds</h2>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nA meso compound contains a plane of symmetry and so is achiral, regardless of whether the molecule has a chiral center. A plane of symmetry is a plane that cuts a molecule in half, yielding two halves that are mirror reflections of each other.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">By definition, a molecule that's not superimposable on its mirror image is a chiral molecule. Compounds that contain chiral centers are generally chiral, whereas molecules that have planes of symmetry are achiral and have structures that are identical to their mirror images.</p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 497px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458164.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The plane of symmetry in meso compounds.\" width=\"497\" height=\"192\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The plane of symmetry in meso compounds</div>\r\n</div>\r\nFor example, <i>cis</i>-1,2-dibromocyclopentane (shown in the first figure) is meso because a plane cuts the molecule into two halves that are reflections of each other. <i>Trans</i>-1,2-dibromocyclopentane, however, is chiral because no plane splits the molecule into two mirror-image halves.\r\n\r\nNow look at the mirror images of these two molecules in the second figure to prove this generality to yourself.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 525px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458165.image1.jpg\" alt=\"The mirror images of achiral (meso) and chiral molecules.\" width=\"525\" height=\"148\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The mirror images of achiral (meso) and chiral molecules</div>\r\n</div>\r\nEven though the cis compound has two chiral centers (indicated with asterisks), the molecule is achiral because the mirror image is identical to the original molecule (and is, therefore, superimposable on the original molecule). Molecules with planes of symmetry will always have superimposable mirror images and will be achiral. On the other hand, the trans stereoisomer has no plane of symmetry and is chiral.\r\n\r\nIn organic chemistry, you need to be able to spot planes of symmetry in molecules so you can determine whether a molecule with chiral centers will be chiral or meso. For example, can you spot the planes of symmetry in each of the meso compounds shown in the last figure?\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 525px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458166.image2.jpg\" alt=\"Some meso compounds.\" width=\"525\" height=\"139\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">Some meso compounds</div>\r\n</div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div></div>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >How to Identify the Diastereomers of a Molecule</h2>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nWhen more than one chiral center is present in a molecule, you have the possibility of having stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. Such stereoisomers that are not mirror images are called <i>diastereomers</i>.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Typically, you can only have diastereomers when the molecule has two or more chiral centers.</p>\r\nThe maximum number of possible stereoisomers that a molecule can have is a function of 2<i><sup>n</sup></i>, where <i>n</i> is the number of chiral centers in the molecule. Therefore, a molecule with five chiral centers can have up to 2<sup>5</sup> or 32 possible stereoisomers! As the number of chiral centers increases, the number of possible stereoisomers for that compound increases rapidly.\r\n\r\nFor example, the molecule shown here has two chiral centers.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 173px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458169.image0.jpg\" alt=\"A molecule with two chiral centers.\" width=\"173\" height=\"140\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A molecule with two chiral centers</div>\r\n</div>\r\nBecause this molecule has two chiral centers, it can have a total of 2<sup>2</sup>, or 4, possible stereoisomers, of which only one will be the enantiomer of the original molecule.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\"><i>Enantiomers</i> are stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other.</p>\r\nBecause both chiral centers in this molecule are of R configuration, the enantiomer of this molecule would have the S configuration for both chiral centers. All the stereoisomers of this molecule are shown in the next figure. Those molecules that are not enantiomers of each other are diastereomers of each other.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 525px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458170.image1.jpg\" alt=\"The four stereoisomers of a molecule with two chiral centers.\" width=\"525\" height=\"165\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The four stereoisomers of a molecule with two chiral centers</div>\r\n</div>\r\n</div>","description":"Chiral molecules usually contain at least one carbon atom with four nonidentical substituents. Such a carbon atom is called a <i>chiral center</i> (or sometimes a <i>stereogenic center</i>), using organic-speak. Any molecule that contains a chiral center will be chiral, with the exception of a meso compound (see below for how to identify these).\r\n\r\nFor example, the compound shown here contains a carbon atom with four nonidentical substituents; this carbon atom is a chiral center, and the molecule itself is chiral, because it's nonsuperimposable on its mirror image.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 277px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/457504.image0.jpg\" alt=\"A chiral center.\" width=\"277\" height=\"116\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A chiral center</div>\r\n</div>\r\nYou need to be able to quickly spot chiral centers in molecules. All straight-chain alkyl group carbons (CH<sub>3</sub> or CH<sub>2</sub> units) will <i>not</i> be chiral centers because these groups have two or more identical groups (the hydrogens) attached to the carbons. Neither will carbons on double or triple bonds be chiral centers because they can't have bonds to four different groups.\r\n\r\nWhen looking at a molecule, look for carbons that are substituted with four different groups. See, for example, if you can spot the two chiral centers in the molecule shown here.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 214px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/457505.image1.jpg\" alt=\"A molecule with two chiral centers.\" width=\"214\" height=\"97\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A molecule with two chiral centers</div>\r\n</div>\r\nBecause CH<sub>3</sub> and CH<sub>2</sub> groups cannot be chiral centers, this molecule has only three carbons that could be chiral centers. The two leftmost possibilities, identified in the next figure, have four nonidentical groups and are chiral centers, but the one on the far right has two identical methyl (CH<sub>3</sub>) groups and so is not a chiral center.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 388px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/457506.image2.jpg\" alt=\"The chiral centers in a long molecule.\" width=\"388\" height=\"190\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The chiral centers in a long molecule</div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div></div>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >How to identify molecules as meso compounds</h2>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nA meso compound contains a plane of symmetry and so is achiral, regardless of whether the molecule has a chiral center. A plane of symmetry is a plane that cuts a molecule in half, yielding two halves that are mirror reflections of each other.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">By definition, a molecule that's not superimposable on its mirror image is a chiral molecule. Compounds that contain chiral centers are generally chiral, whereas molecules that have planes of symmetry are achiral and have structures that are identical to their mirror images.</p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 497px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458164.image0.jpg\" alt=\"The plane of symmetry in meso compounds.\" width=\"497\" height=\"192\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The plane of symmetry in meso compounds</div>\r\n</div>\r\nFor example, <i>cis</i>-1,2-dibromocyclopentane (shown in the first figure) is meso because a plane cuts the molecule into two halves that are reflections of each other. <i>Trans</i>-1,2-dibromocyclopentane, however, is chiral because no plane splits the molecule into two mirror-image halves.\r\n\r\nNow look at the mirror images of these two molecules in the second figure to prove this generality to yourself.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 525px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458165.image1.jpg\" alt=\"The mirror images of achiral (meso) and chiral molecules.\" width=\"525\" height=\"148\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The mirror images of achiral (meso) and chiral molecules</div>\r\n</div>\r\nEven though the cis compound has two chiral centers (indicated with asterisks), the molecule is achiral because the mirror image is identical to the original molecule (and is, therefore, superimposable on the original molecule). Molecules with planes of symmetry will always have superimposable mirror images and will be achiral. On the other hand, the trans stereoisomer has no plane of symmetry and is chiral.\r\n\r\nIn organic chemistry, you need to be able to spot planes of symmetry in molecules so you can determine whether a molecule with chiral centers will be chiral or meso. For example, can you spot the planes of symmetry in each of the meso compounds shown in the last figure?\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 525px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458166.image2.jpg\" alt=\"Some meso compounds.\" width=\"525\" height=\"139\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">Some meso compounds</div>\r\n</div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div></div>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >How to Identify the Diastereomers of a Molecule</h2>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nWhen more than one chiral center is present in a molecule, you have the possibility of having stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. Such stereoisomers that are not mirror images are called <i>diastereomers</i>.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Typically, you can only have diastereomers when the molecule has two or more chiral centers.</p>\r\nThe maximum number of possible stereoisomers that a molecule can have is a function of 2<i><sup>n</sup></i>, where <i>n</i> is the number of chiral centers in the molecule. Therefore, a molecule with five chiral centers can have up to 2<sup>5</sup> or 32 possible stereoisomers! As the number of chiral centers increases, the number of possible stereoisomers for that compound increases rapidly.\r\n\r\nFor example, the molecule shown here has two chiral centers.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 173px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458169.image0.jpg\" alt=\"A molecule with two chiral centers.\" width=\"173\" height=\"140\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A molecule with two chiral centers</div>\r\n</div>\r\nBecause this molecule has two chiral centers, it can have a total of 2<sup>2</sup>, or 4, possible stereoisomers, of which only one will be the enantiomer of the original molecule.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\"><i>Enantiomers</i> are stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other.</p>\r\nBecause both chiral centers in this molecule are of R configuration, the enantiomer of this molecule would have the S configuration for both chiral centers. All the stereoisomers of this molecule are shown in the next figure. Those molecules that are not enantiomers of each other are diastereomers of each other.\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 525px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/458170.image1.jpg\" alt=\"The four stereoisomers of a molecule with two chiral centers.\" width=\"525\" height=\"165\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">The four stereoisomers of a molecule with two chiral centers</div>\r\n</div>\r\n</div>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9321,"name":"Arthur Winter","slug":"arthur-winter","description":" <p><B>Arthur Winter, PhD, </b>is the author of the popular <i>Organic Chemistry Help!</i> website chemhelper.com and <i>Organic Chemistry I For Dummies</i>. His professional focus is on the chemistry of magneto-organic materials. </p> ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9321"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33762,"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"How to identify molecules as meso compounds","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"How to Identify the Diastereomers of a Molecule","target":"#tab2"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":209153,"title":"Organic Chemistry I For Dummies Cheat Sheet","slug":"organic-chemistry-i-for-dummies-cheat-sheet","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/209153"}},{"articleId":193348,"title":"Periodic Table of Elements","slug":"periodic-table-of-elements-2","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193348"}},{"articleId":193338,"title":"Common Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry","slug":"common-functional-groups-in-organic-chemistry","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/193338"}},{"articleId":155208,"title":"An Example Organic Chemistry Mechanism Problem","slug":"an-example-organic-chemistry-mechanism-problem","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/155208"}},{"articleId":155207,"title":"How Conjugated Double-Bond Stereochemistry Works in Vision","slug":"how-conjugated-double-bond-stereochemistry-works-in-vision","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/155207"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251836,"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251836"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250992,"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation","slug":"add-subtract-exponential-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250992"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282434,"slug":"organic-chemistry-i-for-dummies-2nd-edition","isbn":"9781119293378","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119293375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119293375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119293375-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119293375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119293375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/organic-chemistry-i-for-dummies-2nd-edition-cover-9781119293378-203x255.jpg","width":203,"height":255},"title":"Organic Chemistry I For Dummies","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":true,"authorsInfo":"<p><B><b data-author-id=\"9321\">Arthur Winter</b>, PhD, </b>is the author of the popular <i>Organic Chemistry Help!</i> website chemhelper.com and <i>Organic Chemistry I For Dummies</i>. His professional focus is on the chemistry of magneto-organic materials. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":9321,"name":"Arthur Winter","slug":"arthur-winter","description":" <p><B>Arthur Winter, PhD, </b>is the author of the popular <i>Organic Chemistry Help!</i> website chemhelper.com and <i>Organic Chemistry I For Dummies</i>. His professional focus is on the chemistry of magneto-organic materials. </p> ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9321"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119293378&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b0f9fa07\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119293378&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221b0fa02cb\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-07-19T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":146412},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2018-03-16T02:30:51+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-09-17T21:16:43+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:38+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation","strippedTitle":"how to add and subtract with exponential notation","slug":"add-subtract-exponential-notation","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"If you're studying chemistry, you'll need to know how to add and subtract extreme numbers using exponential notation. Here's how.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"In chemistry, you can add and subtract extreme numbers by using exponential notation, and expressing your numbers as coefficients of identical powers of 10. To wrestle your numbers into this form, you may need to use coefficients less than 1 or greater than 10.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Adding with exponential notation</h2>\r\nTo add two numbers by using exponential notation, you begin by expressing each number as a coefficient and a power of 10. In this example, you add these numbers,\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250993\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0201.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0201\" width=\"137\" height=\"39\" />\r\n\r\nby following these steps:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Convert both numbers to the same power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250994\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0202.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0202\" width=\"173\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Add the coefficients.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250995\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0203.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0203\" width=\"125\" height=\"19\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Join your new coefficient to the shared power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250996\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0204.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0204\" width=\"75\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n</ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Subtracting with exponential notation</h2>\r\nTo subtract numbers in exponential notation, you follow the same steps but subtract the coefficients. Here’s an example:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">0.0743 – 0.0022</p>\r\nTo perform the subtraction, follow these steps:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Convert both numbers to the same power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250997\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0205.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0205\" width=\"197\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Subtract the coefficients.</strong>\r\n7.43 – 0.22 = 7.21</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Join your new coefficient to the shared power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250998\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0206.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0206\" width=\"79\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n</ol>\r\nNow try a few practice questions.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Practice questions</h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Add the following:</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250999\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0207.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0207\" width=\"191\" height=\"39\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Use exponential notation to subtract the following:</strong>\r\n9,352 – 431</li>\r\n</ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Answers and Explanations</h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>The correct answer is\r\n</strong><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251000\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0208.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0208\" width=\"77\" height=\"24\" />\r\nBecause the numbers are each already expressed with identical powers of 10 (in this case, 10<span style=\"margin: 0px; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 9.5pt;\"><sup><span style=\"color: #000000;\">–6</span></sup></span>), you can simply add the coefficients:\r\n398 + 147 = 545\r\nThen join the new coefficient with the original power of 10.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>The correct answer is</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251001\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0209.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0209\" width=\"81\" height=\"24\" />\r\n(or an equivalent expression).\r\nFirst, convert the numbers so each uses the same power of 10:\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251002\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0210.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0210\" width=\"192\" height=\"24\" />\r\nHere, you’ve picked 10², but any power is fine as long as the two numbers have the same power. Then subtract the coefficients:\r\n93.52 – 4.31 = 89.21\r\nFinally, join the new coefficient with the shared power of 10.</li>\r\n</ol>","description":"In chemistry, you can add and subtract extreme numbers by using exponential notation, and expressing your numbers as coefficients of identical powers of 10. To wrestle your numbers into this form, you may need to use coefficients less than 1 or greater than 10.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab1\" >Adding with exponential notation</h2>\r\nTo add two numbers by using exponential notation, you begin by expressing each number as a coefficient and a power of 10. In this example, you add these numbers,\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250993\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0201.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0201\" width=\"137\" height=\"39\" />\r\n\r\nby following these steps:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Convert both numbers to the same power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250994\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0202.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0202\" width=\"173\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Add the coefficients.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250995\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0203.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0203\" width=\"125\" height=\"19\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Join your new coefficient to the shared power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250996\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0204.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0204\" width=\"75\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n</ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab2\" >Subtracting with exponential notation</h2>\r\nTo subtract numbers in exponential notation, you follow the same steps but subtract the coefficients. Here’s an example:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">0.0743 – 0.0022</p>\r\nTo perform the subtraction, follow these steps:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Convert both numbers to the same power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250997\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0205.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0205\" width=\"197\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Subtract the coefficients.</strong>\r\n7.43 – 0.22 = 7.21</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Join your new coefficient to the shared power of 10.</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250998\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0206.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0206\" width=\"79\" height=\"24\" /></li>\r\n</ol>\r\nNow try a few practice questions.\r\n<h2 id=\"tab3\" >Practice questions</h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Add the following:</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-250999\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0207.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0207\" width=\"191\" height=\"39\" /></li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Use exponential notation to subtract the following:</strong>\r\n9,352 – 431</li>\r\n</ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"tab4\" >Answers and Explanations</h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>The correct answer is\r\n</strong><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251000\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0208.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0208\" width=\"77\" height=\"24\" />\r\nBecause the numbers are each already expressed with identical powers of 10 (in this case, 10<span style=\"margin: 0px; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 9.5pt;\"><sup><span style=\"color: #000000;\">–6</span></sup></span>), you can simply add the coefficients:\r\n398 + 147 = 545\r\nThen join the new coefficient with the original power of 10.</li>\r\n \t<li><strong>The correct answer is</strong>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251001\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0209.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0209\" width=\"81\" height=\"24\" />\r\n(or an equivalent expression).\r\nFirst, convert the numbers so each uses the same power of 10:\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-251002\" src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/CHEM_0210.jpg\" alt=\"CHEM_0210\" width=\"192\" height=\"24\" />\r\nHere, you’ve picked 10², but any power is fine as long as the two numbers have the same power. Then subtract the coefficients:\r\n93.52 – 4.31 = 89.21\r\nFinally, join the new coefficient with the shared power of 10.</li>\r\n</ol>","blurb":"","authors":[{"authorId":9160,"name":"Chris Hren","slug":"chris-hren","description":" <p><b>Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9160"}},{"authorId":9161,"name":"Peter J. Mikulecky","slug":"peter-j-mikulecky","description":" <p><b>Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9161"}}],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33762,"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[{"label":"Adding with exponential notation","target":"#tab1"},{"label":"Subtracting with exponential notation","target":"#tab2"},{"label":"Practice questions","target":"#tab3"},{"label":"Answers and Explanations","target":"#tab4"}],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251836,"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251836"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250969,"title":"How to Multiply and Divide in Scientific Notation","slug":"multiply-divide-scientific-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250969"}}],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251836,"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251836"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250969,"title":"How to Multiply and Divide in Scientific Notation","slug":"multiply-divide-scientific-notation","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/250969"}}]},"hasRelatedBookFromSearch":false,"relatedBook":{"bookId":282070,"slug":"chemistry-workbook-for-dummies-with-online-practice-3rd-edition","isbn":"9781119357452","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"amazon":{"default":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","ca":"https://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","indigo_ca":"http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-9208661-13710633?url=https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/product/1119357454-item.html&cjsku=978111945484","gb":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20","de":"https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/1119357454/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=wiley01-20"},"image":{"src":"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/chemistry-workbook-for-dummies-3rd-edition-cover-9781119357452-204x255.jpg","width":204,"height":255},"title":"Chemistry Workbook For Dummies with Online Practice","testBankPinActivationLink":"","bookOutOfPrint":false,"authorsInfo":"<p><b data-author-id=\"9160\">Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b data-author-id=\"34803\">Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. </p>","authors":[{"authorId":9160,"name":"Chris Hren","slug":"chris-hren","description":" <p><b>Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/9160"}},{"authorId":34803,"name":"Peter J. Mikulecky","slug":"peter-j-mikulecky","description":" <p><b>Christopher Hren</b> is a high school chemistry teacher and former track and football coach. <b>Peter J. Mikulecky, PhD,</b> teaches biology and chemistry at Fusion Learning Center and Fusion Academy. ","hasArticle":false,"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/authors/34803"}}],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/books/"}},"collections":[],"articleAds":{"footerAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_adhesion_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119357452&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221afe72b06\"></div></div>","rightAd":"<div class=\"du-ad-region row\" id=\"article_page_right_ad\"><div class=\"du-ad-unit col-md-12\" data-slot-id=\"article_page_right_ad\" data-refreshed=\"false\" \r\n data-target = \"[{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;cat&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;academics-the-arts&quot;,&quot;science&quot;,&quot;chemistry&quot;]},{&quot;key&quot;:&quot;isbn&quot;,&quot;values&quot;:[&quot;9781119357452&quot;]}]\" id=\"du-slot-63221afe7359e\"></div></div>"},"articleType":{"articleType":"Articles","articleList":null,"content":null,"videoInfo":{"videoId":null,"name":null,"accountId":null,"playerId":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"description":null,"uploadDate":null}},"sponsorship":{"sponsorshipPage":false,"backgroundImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"brandingLine":"","brandingLink":"","brandingLogo":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0},"sponsorAd":"","sponsorEbookTitle":"","sponsorEbookLink":"","sponsorEbookImage":{"src":null,"width":0,"height":0}},"primaryLearningPath":"Advance","lifeExpectancy":"Five years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-09-17T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":250992},{"headers":{"creationTime":"2016-03-26T21:46:32+00:00","modifiedTime":"2021-07-26T14:37:38+00:00","timestamp":"2022-09-14T18:18:29+00:00"},"data":{"breadcrumbs":[{"name":"Academics & The Arts","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33662"},"slug":"academics-the-arts","categoryId":33662},{"name":"Science","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33756"},"slug":"science","categoryId":33756},{"name":"Chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"},"slug":"chemistry","categoryId":33762}],"title":"Electrochemical Cells: The Daniell Cell","strippedTitle":"electrochemical cells: the daniell cell","slug":"electrochemical-cells-the-daniell-cell","canonicalUrl":"","seo":{"metaDescription":"The Daniell cell is an electrochemical cell named after John Frederic Daniell, the British chemist who invented it in 1836. Find out more.","noIndex":0,"noFollow":0},"content":"Many of the things we deal with in life are related either directly or indirectly to electrochemical reactions. The Daniell cell is an electrochemical cell named after John Frederic Daniell, the British chemist who invented it in 1836.\r\n\r\nA <i>galvanic</i> or <i>voltaic</i> cell is a redox reaction that produces electricity. The following diagram shows a Daniell cell that uses the Zn/Cu²⁺ reaction. This reaction may be separated out so that you have an indirect electron transfer and can produce some useable electricity.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Galvanic cells are commonly called batteries, but sometimes this name is somewhat incorrect. A battery is composed of two or more cells connected together. You put a <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/electrochemical-cells-automobile-batteries/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">battery in your car, but you put a cell into your flashlight</a>.</p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/168113.image1.jpg\" alt=\"A Danielle cell.\" width=\"535\" height=\"393\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A Danielle cell</div>\r\n</div>\r\nIn the Daniell cell, a piece of zinc metal is placed in a solution of zinc sulfate in one container, and a piece of copper metal is placed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate in another container. These strips of metal are called the cell’s <i>electrodes</i>.\r\n\r\nThe electrodes act as a terminal, or a holding place, for electrons. A wire connects the electrodes, but nothing happens until you put a salt bridge between the two containers. The <i>salt bridge</i>, normally a U-shaped hollow tube filled with a concentrated salt solution, provides a way for ions to move from one container to the other to keep the solutions electrically neutral.\r\n\r\nWith the salt bridge in place, electrons can start to flow. Zinc is being oxidized, releasing electrons that flow through the wire to the copper electrode, where they’re available for the Cu²⁺ ions to use in forming copper metal. Copper ions from the copper(II) sulfate solution are being plated out on the copper electrode, while the zinc electrode is being consumed.\r\n\r\nThe cations in the salt bridge migrate to the container containing the copper electrode to replace the copper ions being consumed, while the anions in the salt bridge migrate toward the zinc side, where they keep the solution containing the newly formed Zn²⁺ cations electrically neutral.\r\n\r\nThe zinc electrode is called the <i>anode</i>, the electrode at which oxidation takes place, and is labeled with a “–” sign. The copper electrode is called the <i>cathode</i>, the electrode at which reduction takes place, and is labeled with a “+” sign.\r\n<p class=\"Tip\">This cell will produce a little over one volt. You can get just a little more voltage if you make the solutions that the electrodes are in very concentrated.</p>","description":"Many of the things we deal with in life are related either directly or indirectly to electrochemical reactions. The Daniell cell is an electrochemical cell named after John Frederic Daniell, the British chemist who invented it in 1836.\r\n\r\nA <i>galvanic</i> or <i>voltaic</i> cell is a redox reaction that produces electricity. The following diagram shows a Daniell cell that uses the Zn/Cu²⁺ reaction. This reaction may be separated out so that you have an indirect electron transfer and can produce some useable electricity.\r\n<p class=\"Remember\">Galvanic cells are commonly called batteries, but sometimes this name is somewhat incorrect. A battery is composed of two or more cells connected together. You put a <a href=\"https://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/electrochemical-cells-automobile-batteries/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">battery in your car, but you put a cell into your flashlight</a>.</p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"imageBlock\" style=\"width: 535px;\">\r\n\r\n<img src=\"https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/168113.image1.jpg\" alt=\"A Danielle cell.\" width=\"535\" height=\"393\" />\r\n<div class=\"imageCaption\">A Danielle cell</div>\r\n</div>\r\nIn the Daniell cell, a piece of zinc metal is placed in a solution of zinc sulfate in one container, and a piece of copper metal is placed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate in another container. These strips of metal are called the cell’s <i>electrodes</i>.\r\n\r\nThe electrodes act as a terminal, or a holding place, for electrons. A wire connects the electrodes, but nothing happens until you put a salt bridge between the two containers. The <i>salt bridge</i>, normally a U-shaped hollow tube filled with a concentrated salt solution, provides a way for ions to move from one container to the other to keep the solutions electrically neutral.\r\n\r\nWith the salt bridge in place, electrons can start to flow. Zinc is being oxidized, releasing electrons that flow through the wire to the copper electrode, where they’re available for the Cu²⁺ ions to use in forming copper metal. Copper ions from the copper(II) sulfate solution are being plated out on the copper electrode, while the zinc electrode is being consumed.\r\n\r\nThe cations in the salt bridge migrate to the container containing the copper electrode to replace the copper ions being consumed, while the anions in the salt bridge migrate toward the zinc side, where they keep the solution containing the newly formed Zn²⁺ cations electrically neutral.\r\n\r\nThe zinc electrode is called the <i>anode</i>, the electrode at which oxidation takes place, and is labeled with a “–” sign. The copper electrode is called the <i>cathode</i>, the electrode at which reduction takes place, and is labeled with a “+” sign.\r\n<p class=\"Tip\">This cell will produce a little over one volt. You can get just a little more voltage if you make the solutions that the electrodes are in very concentrated.</p>","blurb":"","authors":[],"primaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":33762,"title":"Chemistry","slug":"chemistry","_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762"}},"secondaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"tertiaryCategoryTaxonomy":{"categoryId":0,"title":null,"slug":null,"_links":null},"trendingArticles":null,"inThisArticle":[],"relatedArticles":{"fromBook":[],"fromCategory":[{"articleId":253707,"title":"How to Make Unit Conversions","slug":"make-unit-conversions","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/253707"}},{"articleId":251836,"title":"How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors","slug":"convert-units-using-conversion-factors","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251836"}},{"articleId":251010,"title":"How to Build Derived Units from Base Units","slug":"build-derived-units-base-units","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251010"}},{"articleId":251005,"title":"How to Do Arithmetic with Significant Figures","slug":"arithmetic-significant-figures","categoryList":["academics-the-arts","science","chemistry"],"_links":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/articles/251005"}},{"articleId":250992,"title":"How to Add and Subtract with Exponential 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years","lifeExpectancySetFrom":"2021-07-25T00:00:00+00:00","dummiesForKids":"no","sponsoredContent":"no","adInfo":"","adPairKey":[]},"status":"publish","visibility":"public","articleId":194214}],"_links":{"self":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762/categoryArticles?sortField=time&sortOrder=1&size=10&offset=0"},"next":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762/categoryArticles?sortField=time&sortOrder=1&size=10&offset=10"},"last":{"self":"https://dummies-api.dummies.com/v2/categories/33762/categoryArticles?sortField=time&sortOrder=1&size=10&offset=177"}}},"objectTitle":"","status":"success","pageType":"article-category","objectId":"33762","page":1,"sortField":"time","sortOrder":1,"categoriesIds":[],"articleTypes":[],"filterData":{"categoriesFilter":[{"itemId":0,"itemName":"All Categories","count":186}],"articleTypeFilter":[{"articleType":"All Types","count":186},{"articleType":"Articles","count":175},{"articleType":"Cheat 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Chemistry Articles

The basic building blocks of reality, explained. Plus, advanced organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and practice problems, all right here.

Articles From Chemistry

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Chemistry Chemistry All-in-One For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 11-08-2022

Chemistry covers all kinds of stuff. Sometimes you might not be sure where to start when you are first given a set of problems and told to go forth and succeed. Sometimes it’s converting metric units, writing ionic formulas, naming covalent compounds, balancing reactions, or dealing with extensive and intensive properties. This Cheat Sheet is designed to give you some help on a few of the trickier things you might encounter so that when you are done looking it over you can go forth and succeed!

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Chemistry How to Convert between Units Using Conversion Factors

Article / Updated 10-26-2022

A conversion factor uses your knowledge of the relationships between units to convert from one unit to another. For example, if you know that there are 2.54 centimeters in every inch (or 2.2 pounds in every kilogram or 101.3 kilopascals in every atmosphere), then converting between those units becomes simple algebra. It is important to know some common conversions of temperature, size, and pressure as well as metric prefixes. Conversion factor table The following table includes some useful conversion factors. Using conversion factors example The following example shows how to use a basic conversion factor to fix non-SI units. Dr. Geekmajor absentmindedly measures the mass of a sample to be 0.75 lb and records his measurement in his lab notebook. His astute lab assistant, who wants to save the doctor some embarrassment, knows that there are 2.2 lbs in every kilogram. The assistant quickly converts the doctor’s measurement to SI units. What does she get? The answer is 0.34 kg. Let’s try another example. A chemistry student, daydreaming during lab, suddenly looks down to find that he’s measured the volume of his sample to be 1.5 cubic inches. What does he get when he converts this quantity to cubic centimeters? The answer is 25 cm3. Rookie chemists often mistakenly assume that if there are 2.54 centimeters in every inch, then there are 2.54 cubic centimeters in every cubic inch. No! Although this assumption seems logical at first glance, it leads to catastrophically wrong answers. Remember that cubic units are units of volume and that the formula for volume is Imagine 1 cubic inch as a cube with 1-inch sides. The cube’s volume is Now consider the dimensions of the cube in centimeters: Calculate the volume using these measurements, and you get This volume is much greater than 2.54 cm3! To convert units of area or volume using length measurements, square or cube everything in your conversion factor, not just the units, and everything works out just fine.

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Chemistry Periodic Table of Elements

Article / Updated 09-27-2022

Studying the elements of the periodic table is vital for understanding organic chemistry. So that you don't have to memorize each element, they're grouped together by their properties.

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Chemistry 4 Families of Organic Compounds with Important Biological Functions

Step by Step / Updated 09-27-2022

When elements combine through chemical reactions, they form compounds. When compounds contain carbon, they’re called organic compounds. The four families of organic compounds with important biological functions are

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Chemistry Chemistry II For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 04-08-2022

Chemistry II is more than fires and smelly explosions. Chemistry II is more about solving calculations. In fact, Chemistry II has a lot more calculations and math than your Chemistry I class did. In your Chemistry II class, you need to master several formulas so you can calculate different mathematical problems, ranging from kinetics, different types of equilibrium, thermochemistry, and electrochemistry. This Cheat Sheet can serve as a quick reference to how to solve kinetics, thermodynamics, and different types of equilibrium problems.

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Chemistry Organic Chemistry I For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-24-2022

You won't get very far in your study of organic chemistry without the periodic table of elements and an understanding of the common functional groups (or reactive centers) that dictate how most of a compound's chemical reactions occur.

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Chemistry Chemistry: 1001 Practice Problems For Dummies Cheat Sheet

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-17-2022

Solving chemistry problems is a great way to master the various laws and calculations you encounter in a typical chemistry class. This Cheat Sheet provides some basic formulas, techniques, and tips you can refer to regularly to make solving chemistry problems a breeze (well, maybe not a breeze, but definitely easier).

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Chemistry Molecules: Identifying Chiral Centers, Meso Compounds, and Diastereomers

Article / Updated 12-17-2021

Chiral molecules usually contain at least one carbon atom with four nonidentical substituents. Such a carbon atom is called a chiral center (or sometimes a stereogenic center), using organic-speak. Any molecule that contains a chiral center will be chiral, with the exception of a meso compound (see below for how to identify these). For example, the compound shown here contains a carbon atom with four nonidentical substituents; this carbon atom is a chiral center, and the molecule itself is chiral, because it's nonsuperimposable on its mirror image. A chiral center You need to be able to quickly spot chiral centers in molecules. All straight-chain alkyl group carbons (CH3 or CH2 units) will not be chiral centers because these groups have two or more identical groups (the hydrogens) attached to the carbons. Neither will carbons on double or triple bonds be chiral centers because they can't have bonds to four different groups. When looking at a molecule, look for carbons that are substituted with four different groups. See, for example, if you can spot the two chiral centers in the molecule shown here. A molecule with two chiral centers Because CH3 and CH2 groups cannot be chiral centers, this molecule has only three carbons that could be chiral centers. The two leftmost possibilities, identified in the next figure, have four nonidentical groups and are chiral centers, but the one on the far right has two identical methyl (CH3) groups and so is not a chiral center. The chiral centers in a long molecule How to identify molecules as meso compounds A meso compound contains a plane of symmetry and so is achiral, regardless of whether the molecule has a chiral center. A plane of symmetry is a plane that cuts a molecule in half, yielding two halves that are mirror reflections of each other. By definition, a molecule that's not superimposable on its mirror image is a chiral molecule. Compounds that contain chiral centers are generally chiral, whereas molecules that have planes of symmetry are achiral and have structures that are identical to their mirror images. The plane of symmetry in meso compounds For example, cis-1,2-dibromocyclopentane (shown in the first figure) is meso because a plane cuts the molecule into two halves that are reflections of each other. Trans-1,2-dibromocyclopentane, however, is chiral because no plane splits the molecule into two mirror-image halves. Now look at the mirror images of these two molecules in the second figure to prove this generality to yourself. The mirror images of achiral (meso) and chiral molecules Even though the cis compound has two chiral centers (indicated with asterisks), the molecule is achiral because the mirror image is identical to the original molecule (and is, therefore, superimposable on the original molecule). Molecules with planes of symmetry will always have superimposable mirror images and will be achiral. On the other hand, the trans stereoisomer has no plane of symmetry and is chiral. In organic chemistry, you need to be able to spot planes of symmetry in molecules so you can determine whether a molecule with chiral centers will be chiral or meso. For example, can you spot the planes of symmetry in each of the meso compounds shown in the last figure? Some meso compounds How to Identify the Diastereomers of a Molecule When more than one chiral center is present in a molecule, you have the possibility of having stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. Such stereoisomers that are not mirror images are called diastereomers. Typically, you can only have diastereomers when the molecule has two or more chiral centers. The maximum number of possible stereoisomers that a molecule can have is a function of 2n, where n is the number of chiral centers in the molecule. Therefore, a molecule with five chiral centers can have up to 25 or 32 possible stereoisomers! As the number of chiral centers increases, the number of possible stereoisomers for that compound increases rapidly. For example, the molecule shown here has two chiral centers. A molecule with two chiral centers Because this molecule has two chiral centers, it can have a total of 22, or 4, possible stereoisomers, of which only one will be the enantiomer of the original molecule. Enantiomers are stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other. Because both chiral centers in this molecule are of R configuration, the enantiomer of this molecule would have the S configuration for both chiral centers. All the stereoisomers of this molecule are shown in the next figure. Those molecules that are not enantiomers of each other are diastereomers of each other. The four stereoisomers of a molecule with two chiral centers

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Chemistry How to Add and Subtract with Exponential Notation

Article / Updated 09-17-2021

In chemistry, you can add and subtract extreme numbers by using exponential notation, and expressing your numbers as coefficients of identical powers of 10. To wrestle your numbers into this form, you may need to use coefficients less than 1 or greater than 10. Adding with exponential notation To add two numbers by using exponential notation, you begin by expressing each number as a coefficient and a power of 10. In this example, you add these numbers, by following these steps: Convert both numbers to the same power of 10. Add the coefficients. Join your new coefficient to the shared power of 10. Subtracting with exponential notation To subtract numbers in exponential notation, you follow the same steps but subtract the coefficients. Here’s an example: 0.0743 – 0.0022 To perform the subtraction, follow these steps: Convert both numbers to the same power of 10. Subtract the coefficients. 7.43 – 0.22 = 7.21 Join your new coefficient to the shared power of 10. Now try a few practice questions. Practice questions Add the following: Use exponential notation to subtract the following: 9,352 – 431 Answers and Explanations The correct answer is Because the numbers are each already expressed with identical powers of 10 (in this case, 10–6), you can simply add the coefficients: 398 + 147 = 545 Then join the new coefficient with the original power of 10. The correct answer is (or an equivalent expression). First, convert the numbers so each uses the same power of 10: Here, you’ve picked 10², but any power is fine as long as the two numbers have the same power. Then subtract the coefficients: 93.52 – 4.31 = 89.21 Finally, join the new coefficient with the shared power of 10.

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Chemistry Electrochemical Cells: The Daniell Cell

Article / Updated 07-26-2021

Many of the things we deal with in life are related either directly or indirectly to electrochemical reactions. The Daniell cell is an electrochemical cell named after John Frederic Daniell, the British chemist who invented it in 1836. A galvanic or voltaic cell is a redox reaction that produces electricity. The following diagram shows a Daniell cell that uses the Zn/Cu²⁺ reaction. This reaction may be separated out so that you have an indirect electron transfer and can produce some useable electricity. Galvanic cells are commonly called batteries, but sometimes this name is somewhat incorrect. A battery is composed of two or more cells connected together. You put a battery in your car, but you put a cell into your flashlight. A Danielle cell In the Daniell cell, a piece of zinc metal is placed in a solution of zinc sulfate in one container, and a piece of copper metal is placed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate in another container. These strips of metal are called the cell’s electrodes. The electrodes act as a terminal, or a holding place, for electrons. A wire connects the electrodes, but nothing happens until you put a salt bridge between the two containers. The salt bridge, normally a U-shaped hollow tube filled with a concentrated salt solution, provides a way for ions to move from one container to the other to keep the solutions electrically neutral. With the salt bridge in place, electrons can start to flow. Zinc is being oxidized, releasing electrons that flow through the wire to the copper electrode, where they’re available for the Cu²⁺ ions to use in forming copper metal. Copper ions from the copper(II) sulfate solution are being plated out on the copper electrode, while the zinc electrode is being consumed. The cations in the salt bridge migrate to the container containing the copper electrode to replace the copper ions being consumed, while the anions in the salt bridge migrate toward the zinc side, where they keep the solution containing the newly formed Zn²⁺ cations electrically neutral. The zinc electrode is called the anode, the electrode at which oxidation takes place, and is labeled with a “–” sign. The copper electrode is called the cathode, the electrode at which reduction takes place, and is labeled with a “+” sign. This cell will produce a little over one volt. You can get just a little more voltage if you make the solutions that the electrodes are in very concentrated.

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