Architecture Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-14-2022

To hone your basic knowledge of architecture, get to know the terms used to describe various features, the features that make for good architecture, and some of the great architectural domes around the planet. You can draw inspiration from notable architects and from Pritzker Architecture Prize winners.

Article / Updated 11-11-2021

For the Greeks, temples were not only places to worship the gods but also impressive symbols of their society and culture. They were built as focal points on the highest ground of every city in Greece and the conquered territories around the Mediterranean. Beneath the temples spread public meeting places, civic buildings, gymnasiums, stadiums, theaters, and housing. Today, the remains of Greek cities can be found in Italy, Sicily, and Turkey. One of the reasons that they have lasted so long is that the Greeks built their temples, amphitheaters, and other major public buildings with limestone and marble. Blocks of stone were held in place by bronze or iron pins set into molten lead — a flexible system that could withstand earthquakes. Greek architecture followed a highly structured system of proportions that relates individual architectural components to the whole building. This system was developed according to three styles, or orders. Each of the orders consists of an upright support called a column that extends from a base at the bottom to a shaft in the middle and a capital at the top — much like the feet, body, and head of the human figure. The capital was often a stylized representation of natural forms, such as animal horns or plant leaves. It, in turn, supports a horizontal element called the entablature, which is divided further into three different parts: The architrave (lowest part) The frieze (middle) The cornice (top) These elements, in turn, were further elaborated with decorative moldings and ornamentation (see Figure 1). Each component of a classical order was sized and arranged according to an overall proportioning system based on the height and diameter of the columns. Figure 1: Parts of a column. The Greeks first constructed their orders with wood, and then switched to stone using the same forms. The ends of the wooden beams holding up the roof, for example, were translated into stone as a decorative element, called a triglyph ("three grooves"), in the entablature above the column capital. The Greeks started out using only one order per building. But after a few hundred years, they got more creative and sometimes used one order for the exterior and another for the interior. The proportions of the orders were developed over a long period of time — they became lighter and more refined. Some folks think that the orders are primarily a question of details, moldings, and characteristic capitals. However, in fact, the very concept of order and an overall relationship is really the most important thing here. Each of the orders is a proportional system or a range of proportions for the entire structure. Doric: Heavy simplicity The oldest, simplest, and most massive of the three Greek orders is the Doric, which was applied to temples beginning in the 7th century B.C. As shown in Figure 2, columns are placed close together and are often without bases. Their shafts are sculpted with concave curves called flutes. The capitals are plain with a rounded section at the bottom, known as the echinus, and a square at the top, called the abacus. The entablature has a distinctive frieze decorated with vertical channels, or triglyphs. In between the triglyphs are spaces, called metopes, which were commonly sculpted with figures and ornamentation. The frieze is separated from the architrave by a narrow band called the regula. Together, these elements formed a rectangular structure surrounded by a double row of columns that conveyed a bold unity. The Doric order reached its pinnacle of perfection in the Parthenon. Figure 2: Doric order. Ionic: Look for the two scrolls The next order to be developed by the Greeks was the Ionic (see Figure 3). It is called Ionic because it developed in the Ionian islands in the 6th century B.C. Roman historian Vitruvius compared this delicate order to a female form, in contrast to the stockier "male" Doric order. The Ionic was used for smaller buildings and interiors. It's easy to recognize because of the two scrolls, called volutes, on its capital. The volutes may have been based on nautilus shells or animal horns. Between the volutes is a curved section that is often carved with oval decorations known as egg and dart. Above the capital, the entablature is narrower than the Doric, with a frieze containing a continuous band of sculpture. One of the earliest and most striking examples of the Ionic order is the tiny Temple to Athena Nike at the entrance to the Athens Acropolis. It was designed and built by Callicrates from about 448-421 B.C. Figure 3: Ionic order. Corinthian: Leafy but not as popular The third order is the Corinthian, which wasn't used much by the Greeks. It is named after the city of Corinth, where sculptor Callimachus supposedly invented it by at the end of the 5th century B.C. after he spotted a goblet surrounded by leaves. As shown in Figure 4, the Corinthian is similar to the Ionic order in its base, column, and entablature, but its capital is far more ornate, carved with two tiers of curly acanthus leaves. The oldest known Corinthian column stands inside the 5th-century temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae. Figure 4: Corinthian order. Compensating for illusions: Straight or curved, who knew? The Greeks continued to strive for perfection in the appearance of their buildings. To make their columns look straight, they bowed them slightly outward to compensate for the optical illusion that makes vertical lines look curved from a distance. They named this effect entasis, which means "to strain" in Greek. Relationships between columns, windows, doorways, and other elements were constantly analyzed to find pleasing dimensions that were in harmony with nature and the human body. Symmetry and the unity of parts to the whole were important to Greek architecture, as these elements reflected the democratic city-state pioneered by the Greek civilization.

Article / Updated 11-11-2021

From the ancient civilizations of the Near East to the native peoples of Central America, pyramid building has been a common architectural design for thousands of years. What is so appealing about the shape of a pyramid? Ancient rulers liked these artificial mountains for their great height (allowing them to commune with the gods) and commanding visual presence over flat river valleys. On a practical level, a pyramid concentrates most of its building on the lower half, so fewer stones have to be hauled to the top. The lower stories act as scaffolding for constructing the upper ones. Tomb and temple, straight-sided and stepped, pyramids assume a variety of functions and forms. Building an afterlife: Egyptian pyramids The ancient Egyptians built, for their rulers, more than 80 pyramids along the banks of the Nile near modern-day Cairo from 2700 to 1640 BCE. The pyramids were designed according to three forms: Step pyramid Bent pyramid Straight-sided pyramid (the most common type) Limestone for the pyramids was quarried on the east bank of the Nile, transported on boats, and then dragged from the river to the building site on wooden sleds with runners. No one knows exactly how the pyramids were built, but the heavy blocks were probably dragged up a straight or spiral ramp that grew as the pyramid rose in height. The exterior surfaces were covered with better quality stone and smoothed with copper chisels and stone hammers. The summit of the pyramid was often covered in gold. The spiritual significance of pyramids Egyptians believed that after death, pharaohs became gods and their souls traveled to the sky or sun. With their stepped or triangular sides, pyramids acted as staircases for this spiritual journey. The Egyptians also believed that the preservation of the body was essential to the immortality of the soul. They thought that if people needed the protection of buildings while alive, they also needed it after death. The pyramids protected the king's body and the goods that were to be taken to the next world. Some experts claim that the pyramids represented the rays of the sun that linked the reigning pharaoh to Ra, the sun god. The pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile by Egyptian laborers — not slaves. They were only too happy to work for the king, who fed and clothed them and promised to care for them in the afterlife. Some of the laborers were also given a funeral plot on the grounds of the pyramid that further guaranteed their afterlife. Each pyramid was only part of a larger funerary complex arranged in a line that led from the banks of the Nile River. Along the riverfront was a temple (probably used to mummify the king), connected by a covered causeway to another temple (used for sacred rites) at the foot of the pyramid. Rectangular tombs for the king's family and courtiers, called mastabas, were built around the pharaoh's pyramid. The queens — pharaohs had many wives — had smaller pyramids of their own. The pyramids of Giza The majestic pyramids of Giza, near Cairo, have been a tourist attraction for thousands of years. When the Greek historian Herodotus visited them in the 6th century BCE, he gave them the names by which they are still known. The largest pyramid is called the Cheops pyramid or Great Pyramid. It was built around 2550 BCE for Khufu. The pyramid is surrounded by three small pyramids and rows of small tombs. This awesome structure stands about 480 feet tall with a square base measuring 756 feet on a side. (The Great Pyramid is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing.) The second pyramid, 9 feet shorter than its neighbor, is named Chephren, which is Greek for Khafre, who was Khufu's son or younger brother. It was finished in about 2520 BCE. Next to it stands the Great Sphinx, an immense sculpture representing the head of Khafre on the body of a crouching lion. Smaller still, at 218 feet high, is the third pyramid built by Khafre's successor, Mycerinus or Menkaure in 2490 BCE To the south are three smaller pyramids, including one covered in granite that may have been the tomb of Menkaura's favorite wife, Queen Khamerernebty. What's so remarkable about these structures is the precision of their construction. The bases from which they rise are absolutely level, and the joints between the stonework are extremely narrow. Originally, the pyramids were covered in smooth limestone, most of which has been pillaged over centuries for other buildings, except for a small area at the top of Cheops. By 2000 BCE the Great Pyramids were abandoned by Egyptian rulers after robbers continually looted their tombs. Pharaohs went on to build tombs and temples in the rocky cliffs and hillsides of the Valley of the Kings at Thebes, not far from Luxor. The temples were not places for communal worship but a meeting place between a god and their representative on Earth, the pharaoh. These buildings were not pyramidal in shape, but instead were tiered into the hillside with sloping walls. Inside, the temples were divided into halls, courtyards, and sanctuaries. In some of the halls, rows of heavy stone supports, carved and painted with plant-inspired decorations, created the effect of a forest. Two of the most famous temples are the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak (begun in 1530 BCE) and the Temple of Luxor (begun in about 1400 BCE). Pyramids in the Americas Hundreds of years after the Egyptians mummified their last pharaoh, the Incas of Peru, the Mayas of Central America, and the Aztecs of Mexico built their own pyramids. Construction of these immense sacred structures began in the region around 200 BCE and continued for another 1,000 years. In the Americas, pyramids were mostly used as temples and were built of stone and adobe with steps and terraces rising to a flat top. Priests climbed the stairs to altars on platforms where they conducted sacred rites and sacrificed humans to the gods. A few pyramids were built over tombs. Monumental in scale, pyramids were a prominent part of early Mesoamerican cities. Dominating the ancient city of Teotihuacan near Mexico City is the Pyramid of the Sun (50 CE). This pyramid, rising from a 712-foot square base to a height of 187 feet, was the largest of several temples built in this city, which flourished from 200 BCE to 750 CE as a major religious center. The Mayas of Central America built some of the most magnificent pyramids between 250 and 900 CE. Although many of these stone monuments were constructed during medieval times, they followed ancient forms and traditions. Here are some striking examples: The Temple of the Magician in Mexico's Yucatan peninsula was part of a large Mayan city called Uxmal that flourished around 600 to 900 CE. The pyramidal temple is one of several stone structures built in the architectural style known as Puuc ("low hill" in Mayan). Lower stories are rather plain, while upper sections are richly decorated with ornate carvings and mosaics. Mayas would often build a new temple over an existing one, and in this structure, five stages of construction have been found. The Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque was dedicated to Mayan ruler Hanab Pakal, who has been called the "Mesoamerican Charlemagne." The 75-foot-high pyramidal temple was part of a city built from the 6th to the 9th centuries in the Mexican Chiapas highlands. The ruins of Palenque also include terraces, plazas, burial grounds, and a ball court — all with expressive stone carvings. In 1952, the tomb of Pakal was found in a crypt at the bottom of a staircase inside the pyramid. El Castillo (Spanish for "the castle"), a 98-foot-high pyramid, was built by the Itzas, a Mayan-speaking people, at Chichén Itzá (meaning "the mouth of the well of the Itzas") in Yucatan, Mexico, in the 12th century. Stairways rise on all four sides of the pyramid to a temple dedicated to the plumed serpent god, Kukulcán, at the top. Serpent motifs decorate the staircase and other parts of the structure.

Article / Updated 11-10-2021

Today, American architects follow standards established by the Department of the Interior when preserving architecture. The following definitions for preservation, restoration, reconstruction and replication, and rehabilitation are included in these standards. Preservation Sustaining the existing form, integrity, and material of an historic property is categorized as preservation. Preservation work focuses upon the ongoing maintenance and repair of historic materials and features rather than on extensive replacement and new construction. One of the best preserved properties in America is Drayton Hall (1738-1742), a Colonial home near Charleston, South Carolina. Its brick structure has been maintained in its original condition without electricity or indoor plumbing. Architects abroad often use different terms for preservation. Europeans often refer to it as protection, while British architects use the word conservation; in the United States, conservation is associated with the cleaning and repairing of works of art and building materials, as well as with land preservation. Restoration Removing or replacing missing elements and accurately putting back the architectural form and details is called restoration. The goal is to recreate the historic building and its setting as it appeared at a particular period of time. For example, the Pennsylvania State House (1732-1735), where the Declaration of Independence was drafted (the building is now called Independence Hall), was restored to recreate its appearance in 1776. A new steel structure was inserted to prop up its sagging roof. Some rooms were lacking floors, wood paneling, and furniture, so these elements were reproduced to look like the originals and added as well. Reconstruction and replication When a historic building has been destroyed, the reproduction of its architecture on the same site is referred to as reconstruction. Making an exact copy of the building is called replication; it is the most radical type of preservation. Both of these techniques were used to resurrect European cities that were destroyed during World War II. After Warsaw was heavily bombed, the medieval center of the city was reconstructed — and in some cases, replicated. Existing fragments and archaeological research were used to help make it look just as it did before the war. Rehabilitation When a historic building is repaired, altered, or added to, the process is called rehabilitation. This process calls for upgrading the structure for contemporary use while preserving its historic and architectural character. Rehabilitation is also used interchangeably with renovation. It also may indicate adaptive use, which is the process of adapting a building for a different use. One of the last great rehabilitation projects of the 20th century was the overhaul of Germany's parliament building in Berlin, the Reichstag, after the seat of government was moved there from Bonn. Designed by architect Paul Wallot, the 1894 neo-Renaissance building was almost burned down by the Nazis in 1933, heavily shelled during World War II, and renovated into offices and a museum in the 1960s. In 1992, British architect Norman Foster won a design competition to renew the damaged Reichstag. He respected the history of the century-old structure (including damaged stonework and graffiti on the walls from Russian soldiers) while inserting a new glassy dome. Symbolizing the reunification of Germany, the large dome incorporates spiraling walkways and transmits daylight into the parliamentary chamber through skylights and a reflective cone at the center.

Article / Updated 11-10-2021

Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius insisted that three fundamental principles are essential to architecture. His formula still holds true. A building must balance all three to be considered architecture. These three fundamental principles are as follows: Function: This refers to how a building is used. Whether a building is used as a house, a store, or a museum, it must accommodate practical requirements for every purpose within its walls. A building without function may be beautiful, but it's sculpture, not architecture. Artist Richard Serra, for example, creates room-sized steel enclosures that are structurally daring and mysteriously beautiful, but you can't live in one. Structure: This refers to how a building stands up. Whether it consists of steel columns, wood studs, or brick walls, the framework must resist gravity and the loads placed upon it. But to be architecture, it must do more. It must create beauty from structural necessity — this is what differentiates architecture from engineering. Beauty: This refers to the visual and sensory appeal of buildings. It is what Vitruvius called "delight." Architectural delight can be found in a neatly patterned brick wall, a vaulted stone ceiling, or a tiny window emitting a stream of sunlight. Beauty is the ultimate test of good architecture. Without beauty, a highly functional building is merely utilitarian without rising to the realm of architecture. It's the difference between a suburban tract house and Frank Lloyd Wright's masterpiece, Fallingwater. What is considered beautiful and what is considered ugly changes over time. The Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., designed by Edward Durell Stone, a leading architect of his day, was considered the height of architectural beauty when it opened in 1971. Today, it's ridiculed for its boxy shape, gigantic lobbies, and modernistic decorations. Sometimes, an architectural style that was once considered beautiful will fall out of favor, only to be rediscovered decades later. In Miami Beach, the city's once thriving art deco hotels fell into disrepair in the 1970s and 1980s after years of neglect. After preservationists pointed out the merits of these architectural treasures, the hotels were renovated to become hip tourist destinations. Art deco has once again become synonymous with the beauty of Miami Beach. Truly outstanding works of architecture never fail to wow us with their spatial power. Such structures as Stonehenge and the Parthenon are still admired for their monumentality even though they are thousands of years old. How can you tell if a building is good architecture? You can be pretty sure that a building is good architecture if you can answer "yes" to the following questions: Does it express its function in a meaningful and visually interesting way? For example, an airport may be aerodynamically streamlined to resemble flight, a museum may be sculpted into abstract shapes to represent the contemporary art inside, or an institution that values collaboration among its employees may consist of buildings grouped around a shared courtyard. Does it complement or contrast with its surroundings? Good architecture does not end at its walls. The design of an individual building should relate to its environment in a unique way. Some of the best buildings aren't very noticeable right away — they use the same materials and shapes as neighboring structures but tweak them in new ways. Other buildings introduce a completely different vocabulary to call attention to the form and the function of a particular structure. Is it well built? Architecture should be made to last. It's easy to discern a flimsy building from a solid one — hollow doors, shaky floors, and crooked walls give it away. But the difference between average and excellent architecture is harder to discern: It often hinges on, well, the hinges. Small details, such as door hardware, windowsills, stair railings, and even baseboards, can make or break the architecture. As modern architect Mies van der Rohe once said, "God is in the details." That's why the best architects always insist on designing every tiny thing — and then whine about clients who won't spend money on the design. Does it age well? Good architecture has an essential character that remains steadfast even though the building's use and the needs of its inhabitants may change. New York's Grand Central Terminal, for example, was built with large halls for passengers waiting to board trains. Although busy commuters no longer sit in these rooms — the interior has been changed with new stores and restaurants — Grand Central still imparts the same magnificence as it did when it first opened in 1913. Do the building's spaces surprise, inspire, mystify, delight, or disturb? Good architecture solicits a visceral reaction. A tranquil courtyard filled with plants and fountains soothes our senses, while a dark, underground passageway may fill us with dread. An equally spaced row of monumental columns appeals to our sense of balance, and angled walls, floors, and ceilings that look about to tumble over impart danger and disorientation. Understanding the complexity of architecture can seem daunting. To understand this complexity, you must find out about the science of structures, the craft of building, and the art of space-making, as well as the terminology of architecture. The terminology can be maddeningly obscure, but the rewards that come from understanding it are great. You will be able to appreciate not only your immediate surroundings but also iconic buildings throughout history. Buildings and cities are more likely to improve in the future if more people become knowledgeable about architecture.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

To understand architecture’s evolution, it’s important to become acquainted with some of the stars who pushed design in new directions. The men in the following list definitely left a mark, and many of their marks are still standing today! Imhotep: The first architect known by name, this ancient Egyptian created the world’s first stone monument, a tomb for King Zoser. Christopher Wren: This English classical architect is more famous for rebuilding St. Paul’s Cathedral than for the 51 new churches he designed in London. Ictinus and Callicrates: This team of Greek architects spent more than a decade perfecting the Parthenon, the most influential building of all time. Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Versatile in classical and Romantic styles, this German master designed one of the world’s first museums. Hadrian: A Roman emperor and architecture buff, Hadrian propelled design and engineering to new heights with the Pantheon. Louis Sullivan: A skyscraper pioneer, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan decorated his modern structures in leafy ornament. Abbot Suger: This French monk was influential in developing the soaring architecture of Gothic cathedrals. Frank Lloyd Wright: The most famous American architect of the twentieth century rooted his organic architecture in the land. Filippo Brunelleschi: One of the first architects of the Italian Renaissance, Brunelleschi designed the dome of Florence Cathedral. Le Corbusier: Born Charles Edouard Jeanneret, this Swiss-French genius used glass, steel, and concrete to invent a modern language for buildings and cities.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

You’re standing in front of the Parthenon or some other great work of architecture. The tour guide next to you starts talking about “orders.” You’re ready to put in your lunch request until you realize that she’s referring to the architecture. The terms in the following list can help you understand architectural lingo — and even speak it if you’re so inclined. arch: a structure spanning an opening that is supported from the sides. minaret: a slim tower that is part of a mosque and is used to call the faithful to prayers. buttress: a support on the outside of a wall that helps to stabilize a vault or roof. orders: styles of classical architecture developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans; they include the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. column: a vertical post divided into a base, a shaft, and a capital at the top. portico: a porch with a roof supported by a row of columns. dome: a curved, semispherical roof structure that is circular in plan. quoin: a large stone at the corner of an exterior wall. entasis: a slight, outward curvature in a column that corrects an optical illusion and gives the appearance of being straight. rustication: roughly surfaced stonework on exterior walls; popular during the Renaissance. façade: the face or exterior architectural treatment of a building. shaft: the section of a column between the base and the capital. gable: the triangular portion of a wall under the end of a pitched roof. tracery: curvy ornament in the upper part of a Gothic window. hypar: short for hyperbolic paraboloid, a type of shell structure with downwardly and upwardly curved surfaces. uplift: raising of a structure in response to structural forces. Ionic: a type of classical architecture with scroll-like decorations, called volutes, on the column capital. vault: an arched ceiling or roof. jamb: the vertical side of a doorway or window. wythe: a continuous band of brick or stone that is one unit in thickness. keystone: a wedge-shaped unit at the top of an arch. ziggurat: a type of stepped pyramid used as a temple in ancient Mesopotamia. lintel: a horizontal beam spanning the top of a door or window.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Architecture often goes for the dramatic and a dome is often the most notable architectural feature of a building — or the shape of the building itself. Some of the great domes around the world are shown in the following list: The Pantheon: Rome, Italy St. Peter’s Basilica: Rome, Italy Hagia Sophia: Istanbul, Turkey St. Paul’s Cathedral: London, England Dome of the Rock: Jerusalem, Israel Taj Mahal: Agra, India Florence Cathedral: Florence, Italy U.S. Capitol: Washington, D.C.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Of all the awards related to architecture, the most prestigious is the Pritzker Prize. Established in 1979 by Jay and Cindy Pritzker, the cash ($100,000) prize is funded by the Pritzkers’ Hyatt Hotel Foundation and given annually to honor a body of work by a living architect. Candidates are selected through a process modeled after the Nobel Prize, with secret voting by an international panel of judges. The awards ceremony is held at architecturally significant sites around the world. Following is the list of the Pritzker Prize winners: 1979: Philip Johnson, United States 1990: Aldo Rossi, Italy 2001: Jacques Herzog and Pierre De Meuron, Switzerland 1980: Luis Barragan, Mexico 1991: Robert Venturi, United States 2002: Glenn Murcutt, Australia 1981: James Stirling, Great Britain 1992: Alvaro Siza, Portugal 2003: Jern Utzon, Denmark 1982: Kevin Roche, United States 1993: Fumihiko Maki, Japan 2004: Zaha Hadid, Iraq / Great Britain 1983: I.M. Pei, United States 1994: Christian de Portzamparc, France 2005: Thom Mayne, United States 1984: Richard Meier, United States 1995: Tadao Ando, Japan 2006: Paulo Mendes da Rocha, Brazil 1985: Hans Hollein, Austria 1996: Rafael Moneo, Spain 2007: Richard Rogers, United Kingdom 1986: Gottfried Boehm, Germany 1997: Sverre Fehn, Norway 2008: Jean Nouvel, France 1987: Kenzo Tange, Japan 1998: Renzo Piano, Italy 2009: Peter Zumthor, Switzerland 1988: Gordon Bunshaft, United States, and Oscar Neimeyer, Brazil 1999: Norman Foster, Great Britain 2010: Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa, Japan 1989: Frank Gehry, United States 2000: Rem Koolhaas, Netherlands

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

How can you tell if a work of architecture is any good? It’s simple. You know a work of architecture is good if you can answer “yes” to the following questions: Does it express its function in a visually intriguing way? Does it complement or contrast with its surroundings? Is it well built? Does it continue to age well? Does it have the ability to surprise, inspire, delight, or disturb you? Is it simply unforgettable?