Bible Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 01-20-2022

You’ll feel more confident about your biblical studies when you see a timeline of the important events as they happened in the Bible, have an understanding of the books of the Bible and how they are organized, and have a quick reference list of the Ten Commandments.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 01-19-2022

If you're befuddled by the Book of Revelation in the Bible, don't fret. Take a look at the basic structure of the Book of Revelation; its major interpretations; the various perspectives on the Millennial Kingdom mentioned in Revelation 20; and how key events shaped John the Apostle and his writing. By doing so, you'll better understand this final book of the Bible's New Testament.

Article / Updated 11-04-2021

The Bible has a "cast" of thousands, but some of them play more important roles than others. Here are eleven of the prime players in the Bible, from the first humans to Bible prophets to Apostles to Jesus himself. Of course, the most important character in the Bible is God, but because God isn't a "people," he doesn't appear in this collection. Adam and Eve Okay, Adam and Eve are two people. But Adam and Eve really are inseparable. Even the Bible refers to them as "one flesh" in recognition of their coming from the same flesh (Adam's) and being joined together again in marital/sexual union. Adam and Eve are important because, according to the Bible, they're the first two people in the world, and from them comes everyone who has ever lived. The human drama begins when God forms Adam from the ground and breathes life into him. God then performs the first surgery, creating Eve from Adam's side (a more literal translation than "rib"). Adam and Eve live together in Paradise (or what the Bible calls the Garden of Eden) until they disobey God by eating fruit from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. This act of defiance, called "The Fall" by many theologians, is a real bummer because from it comes painful childbirth, weeds in your garden, and, ultimately, death. Moreover, Adam and Eve's disobedience introduce fear and alienation into humankind's formerly perfect relationships with God and one another. As evidence of this alienation, Adam and Eve's son, Cain, murders his brother, Abel. Noah Noah is most famous for building an ark — a giant three-decked wooden box in which he, his family, and a whole bunch of animals ride out a massive flood that God sends to destroy humankind for its disobedience. God chooses Noah and his family to survive the deluge because Noah is "the most righteous in his generation." Noah is important not only because his ark decorates most nurseries in North America but also because, according to the Bible, if Noah hadn't been righteous, none of us would be here right now. Abraham The Bible is filled with stories about people disobeying God. One notable exception is Abraham, a man who, though not perfect, obeys God's command to leave his homeland in Mesopotamia and venture to an unknown Promised Land (ancient Canaan; later Israel). God promises Abraham that his descendants will become a great nation, through which all the people of the earth will be blessed. The tales of Abraham and his wife, Sarah, are a roller coaster of dramatic events that repeatedly jeopardize God's promise. Ironically, the biggest threat to God's promise is when God Himself commands Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac. Abraham sets out to do just as God orders, but right before Abraham delivers the fatal blow to his own child, God stops the sacrifice. As a reward for Abraham's faith, God fulfills His promise to make Abraham's descendants a great nation, as Isaac's son, Jacob, eventually has 12 sons, whose descendants become the nation of Israel. Today, three of the world's major religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — trace their roots to Abraham. Moses The Hebrew Bible describes Moses as the greatest prophet who ever lived, and for good reason. Moses is born during hard times for ancient Israel. Israelites are enslaved in Egypt, and their growing population so alarms the Egyptians that the Egyptian king orders all newborn Israelite males drowned in the Nile River. Moses's mother saves her son's life by placing him in the Nile in a reed basket, where he is soon discovered by Pharaoh's daughter, who ironically raises Moses in the royal palace. After he's grown, Moses must flee Egypt for killing an Egyptian who was beating an Israelite slave. Eventually, God appears to Moses in a burning bush and tells him that he must return to Egypt to deliver the Israelites from their slavery. With God's help, Moses succeeds in his mission, bringing the Israelites to Mount Sinai, where God first appeared to Moses. At Mount Sinai, God gives Moses the Law, including the Ten Commandments. Moses eventually leads the Israelites to the edge of their Promised Land (ancient Canaan; later Israel), where he dies at the ripe old age of 120. David David is Israel's second and greatest king. As a boy, David courageously defeats a mighty enemy warrior named Goliath with only a sling and a stone. As a man, David conquers all Israel's enemies and begins a dynasty that would rule Jerusalem for nearly 500 years. But not all the news surrounding David is good. David perpetrates one of the Bible's most heinous crimes: He commits adultery with a woman named Bathsheba, who's the wife of one of David's most loyal soldiers, Uriah. Then, to cover up the crime, David has Uriah killed. In David's favor, when the prophet Samuel confronts David with his sin, David repents. Moreover, in God's favor, God forgives David for his sin, but not without punishing David for his crime. Beyond David's royal exploits (and indiscretions), he's credited with writing many of ancient Israel's worship songs, which you can read in the Book of Psalms. Elijah Elijah is one of Israel's greatest prophets, as well as God's heavyweight champ in an epic bout against a deity named Baal (the Canaanite storm god). In order to prove to the Israelites that God is the only true God, Elijah gathers the prophets of Baal at Mount Carmel, where for the main event each deity is given a pile of wood with a bull on it. The god who can produce fire and consume the sacrifice wins. Baal goes first, and for half the day his prophets dance, shout, sing, and even cut themselves in order to convince their god to answer Elijah's challenge. When their efforts fail, Elijah prays to God, who immediately sends fire down from the sky and consumes the sacrifice. The Israelites rededicate themselves to God, and they kill the prophets who deceived them into worshiping Baal. Later, near the Jordan River, a fiery horse-drawn chariot descends from the sky and takes Elijah to heaven, but not before he appoints a successor named Elisha. Elijah's atypical departure influenced later biblical prophets, who predicted that Elijah would return as a precursor to the coming of the Messiah. Because of these prophecies, Jews invite Elijah every Passover to usher in the age of the Messiah, and the New Testament writers associate John the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus's ministry, with Elijah. Isaiah Isaiah is one of the most influential prophets in the Hebrew Bible. During his career, Isaiah advises several kings of Judah, helping them to avoid being destroyed by the mighty Assyrian Empire (around 700 B.C.E.). Beyond Isaiah's political influence, he is a masterful poet, with many of his prophecies inspiring hope for eventual peace and righteousness on earth. Several of these prophecies were later understood by Christians to be predictions of Jesus, including the birth of Immanuel; the coming of the Prince of Peace, as quoted in Handel's Messiah; and the suffering of God's "Servant" for the sins of His people. Mary Being Jesus's mom, as you might imagine, is bound to put you in the theological limelight, and Mary holds this office with dignity and grace. Betrothed to Joseph at a young age, Mary becomes pregnant under mysterious circumstances. Two of the four gospels claim that God is the father of her baby, but because of the silence of the other two gospels, as well as the lack of this being mentioned by Peter and Paul, it seems the doctrine of Jesus's virgin birth wasn't emphasized in the early Church — though it certainly did dominate later. The picture of Mary in the gospels is one of a concerned and loving mother who doesn't fully understand her son at times, but supports him to the end, even painfully witnessing his execution at the foot of the cross. Much of what Christians believe about Mary arose after her lifetime and highlights theological differences between Catholics and Protestants. For Catholics, Mary maintained her virginity throughout her life. Thus, Jesus's "brothers" and "sisters" were either children fathered by Joseph from previous marriages, or cousins. But for most Protestant groups, these were just what the text says: full siblings. Also in death, Catholics believe that Mary's assumption to heaven involved not only her soul, but her body as well. For all Christians, Mary becomes venerated more than any other woman in the Bible. Jesus The New Testament's story of Jesus is as fascinating as it is inspiring. Born and raised in the "backwaters" of the Roman Empire, Jesus begins a religious movement that eventually overtakes the Empire. According to the New Testament, Jesus is the Messiah ("anointed one," Greek "Christos"), the promised deliverer of Israel, whose death on the cross brings deliverance from sin, and whose eventual return to earth will bring deliverance from oppression by ushering in God's kingdom. Jesus's message of caring for the downtrodden, extending kindness to strangers, and loving one's enemies is still unrivaled for its profound insight and penetrating simplicity. Peter Jesus affectionately gives his closest friend, Simon, the nickname "Rocky," though the Greek form of the name is "Peter." Peter is a fisherman until Jesus calls him to be a disciple or "a fisher of men." Peter soon becomes the "rock" on which Jesus would build his church, even giving him the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Therefore, according to Catholic doctrine, Peter is the first Pope, the vicar (or substitute) of Christ. But even Jesus's closest confidant betrays him, as on the eve of the crucifixion, Peter denies knowing Jesus three times. Following Jesus's death, Peter spreads Christianity abroad, and while in Rome, tradition holds that in 64 C.E., Nero has Peter crucified upside-down — a request Peter makes so as not to denigrate Jesus's death. His tomb is now encased within St. Peter's Basilica. Paul Paul (or Saul, as he is first called) is arguably the person most responsible for spreading Christianity throughout the Mediterranean region, on its way to becoming the religion of the Roman Empire. Paul's efforts to convert people to Christianity are all the more remarkable since, when we first meet Paul, he is vigorously attempting to stamp out this movement because he believes that its message contradicts the teachings of the Hebrew Bible. Then, one day, while Paul is traveling to Damascus to arrest Christians, Jesus appears to him in a blinding flash of light and tells Paul his efforts against Christianity are what contradict the teachings of the Hebrew Bible, because Jesus is God's promised Messiah. Paul spends the rest of his life spreading the "good news" about Jesus's life and teachings throughout the Roman world, suffering intensely for a movement he was once bent on destroying.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-27-2016

Learn some helpful terms regarding religious writings to explain the subject, and study a timeline of important events so you understand how the Hebrew Bible, Christian Old Testament, and New Testament were formed.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Satan (or the Devil) appears in both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Surprisingly, however, most of what people believe about Satan doesn't come from the Bible. For instance, the common image of Satan as a forked-tailed, horned demon with a goat's body from the waist down derives more from the Greek god Pan than anything biblical. What, then, does the Bible say about Satan? The Hebrew name Satan (pronounced SA-tan) actually means "adversary," and most often in the Hebrew Bible it is prefaced by the direct object, meaning "the adversary" rather than a distinct personal name. Satan's role grows more developed both in scope and magnitude through time, and, thus, in the earlier writings of the Hebrew Bible, Satan exists not so much as an individual character but as an adversarial position occupied by both humans and angels. For example, the word satan is used for a human potential adversary in the Philistine army (1 Samuel 29:4), and two kings God raise to be Solomon's adversaries (1 Kings 11:14, 23). An angel of the LORD is called satan when he blocks the path of Balaam (Numbers 22:22, 32). Satan becomes more developed as a character in later writings of the Hebrew Bible, though he appears only a few times. He at times causes humans to do bad things, as he incites King David to conduct a census (1 Chronicles 21:1). Satan also acts as a heavenly prosecuting attorney, bringing charges against sinners before God's heavenly court. For example, in Psalm 109:6 the author asks Satan to bring an enemy to trial. Also in Zechariah 3:1-2, Satan stands at the right hand of an angel to bring charges against the High Priest. Satan has a similar role in the opening chapter of Job, where he appears in the heavenly court with the sons of God to bring charges against Job. In the New Testament, Satan plays a much larger role. Here Satan, also frequently called the Devil (from Greek diabolos, also meaning "adversary") is a proper name for the one who opposes God. Satan is also identified in the New Testament with the deceitful serpent in Eden, as well as many other names including Belial, the evil one, the ruler of the demons, the enemy, the ruler of this world, and Beelzebul (Beelzebub, meaning "Lord of the flies," is a pun on the name Beelzebul, meaning "Prince Baal"). Many scholars attribute Satan's development from an adversary to the archenemy of God to the influence of the Persian religion Zoroastrianism. This religion is a lot like Star Wars, in which two opposing forces, one good and the other evil, struggle for control of the universe. Yet, the New Testament preserves the Hebrew Bible's notion of Satan as far inferior to God and needing to get God's permission before "raising hell" on earth (see, for example, Luke 22:31). Following the biblical period, Medieval theologians reinterpreted passages such as Isaiah 14 and Ezekiel 28, in which Babylonian and Phoenician kings are condemned for pride, as descriptions about Satan. In fact, the name Lucifer comes from a Latin translation of Isaiah 14:12, in which the Babylonian king is linked to a fallen Morning Star, called in Latin lucern ferre ("bearer of light").

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Rather than just appear on earth one day, or "beam down" (to use Trek-talk), Jesus is said to have entered this world in the most orthodox of ways: childbirth. Jesus' appearance on earth is known as the Incarnation, or what the Gospel of John calls Jesus' "becoming flesh." Interestingly, though, John doesn't describe the events surrounding Jesus' Incarnation. Receiving Jesus' birth announcement According to the gospels, Jesus' mother is a young woman named Mary. Although being of humble means, Mary and her fiancé, Joseph, are of noble birth, as they are descendants of the great Israelite king, David. This connection to David is important for the New Testament writers, because many Jews during Jesus' time were expecting a Davidic Messiah or king who would deliver them from their enemies (the Romans, during Jesus' day). Messiah comes from a Hebrew word that means, "anointed one." In Greek, this word is Christos — hence, the name Jesus Christ. But there is something else about Mary that is exceptional — something that she's not even aware of at first. She is to become pregnant with Jesus while she is still a virgin. Mary finds out about her unusual pregnancy when she is visited by the angel Gabriel, who declares: The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. Therefore, the Holy One who is conceived in you will be called the Son of God. -Luke 1:35 Gabriel's declaration to Mary is known as the Annunciation, which is a fancy word meaning "the birth announcement" (only it is the birth announcement). Today you can visit The Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth, where this event is traditionally thought to have taken place. Gabriel's announcement to Mary is recorded only in Luke's gospel. According to Matthew, an unnamed angel also appears to Joseph, who is contemplating breaking off his engagement with Mary after finding out she is pregnant. The angel informs Joseph that Mary's pregnancy has been divinely orchestrated, and that he is not only to marry Mary, he is to name their son Jesus, which means "the LORD saves" — a fitting name, since, as the angel tells Joseph, "[Jesus] will save his people from their sins.". Revisiting the manger scene: Jesus' birth As Mary approaches her due date, a most "unfortunate" thing happens. According to Luke, the Roman Emperor, Caesar Augustus, decrees that a census should be taken of everyone in his empire. In order to accomplish this, people have to go to their ancestral hometown in order to register their names. O little town of Bethlehem Because Joseph and Mary trace their lineage to King David, Augustus' decree requires that they make the approximately 80-mile trek from their home in Nazareth to David's hometown of Bethlehem. Yet, this inconvenience is important, because it further connects Jesus' life with the expectations of a coming Davidic Messiah. As the angel Gabriel says to Mary: The Lord God will give [Jesus] the throne of his ancestor David, and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever. And his kingdom will never end. -Luke 1:32-33 Away in a manger Upon arriving in Bethlehem, Mary and Joseph cannot find lodging at the inn. Therefore, they are compelled to stay in an animal stable. Here Mary gives birth to Jesus, and places him in a manger (a feeding trough). At least this is how the story has traditionally been understood — but this may be wrong. The Greek word kataluma, translated "inn" elsewhere, means the guest room of a house. Therefore, many scholars believe that the overcrowded conditions are in a guest room of the home of one of Joseph's or Mary's relatives. Because Mary wants some privacy after giving birth to Jesus, she goes to the bottom floor of the home (many homes were multi-leveled in first-century Judea), where animals also lived (yes, animals lived in their owners' homes — so let the dog in for heaven's sake!). Angels we have heard on high In keeping with Luke's emphasis on Jesus as the Savior of the whole world, including the poor and seemingly unimportant, he recounts that, upon Jesus' birth, an angel appears to some lowly shepherds in a nearby field, and says, Behold! I bring you good news of great joy that will be for all people. For today in the city of David is born to you a Savior who is Christ the Lord. -Luke 2:10-11 In this brief announcement, the angel says a lot. Not only does he mention the "good news" or gospel that will be for "all people," he also refers to the messianic expectation surrounding a descendant of David. The angel then tells the shepherds that they will find this Messiah "wrapped in swaddling clothes and lying in a manger." Suddenly, numerous angels appear in the sky, and begin declaring (not "sweetly singing") praise to God. The adoration of the shepherds Quickly, the shepherds make their way to Bethlehem, where they find the infant child and worship him. Mary, who is amazed at hearing the report of the angel's announcement, "treasured all these things, pondering them in her heart." The shepherds then go back to their flocks, but not without telling everyone they encounter about the amazing things they had seen and heard. Jesus' circumcision and dedication Eight days after his birth, Jesus is circumcised (ouch). This fulfills God's command as expressed to Abraham and Moses in the Hebrew Bible. Jesus is also given his name at this time, a tradition that similarly derives from Abraham, who circumcised and named his son, Isaac, at 8 days old. Even today, many Jewish parents circumcise and name their children on the eighth day, in a ceremony called a bris, from a word meaning "covenant." All of this underscores that Jesus is Jewish — a fact that is too often forgotten or overlooked in present-day discussions of Jewish-Christian relations. Further underscoring Jesus' "Jewishness" is that, at 40 days old, he is brought to the Temple to be dedicated to God. This rite finds its origins in the Hebrew Bible, where, according to the Law of Moses, all firstborn sons are to be dedicated to God by sacrificing a lamb and a turtledove or pigeon. If you could not afford a lamb, you could sacrifice an additional bird. That Luke only mentions the birds when quoting the Mosaic Law concerning offerings for newborns suggests that Jesus' parents don't have the means to offer a lamb. Luke's emphasis on Jesus' humble beginnings highlights his theme that Jesus' life and teachings are for everyone, including the poor. Following these events, the gospel of Luke says that Mary, Joseph, and Jesus returned to Nazareth, where Jesus grew up. Adoration of the magi No manger scene would be complete without the presence of the wise men (or magi, as they are sometimes called) bearing gifts of gold, frankincense (or incense), and myrrh for the newborn Jesus. There's only one problem: The wise men most likely weren't there. The mysterious absence of the magi at Jesus' birth To demonstrate that Jesus is the Savior of everyone, whether Jew or gentile, male or female, rich or poor, Luke tells us about the lowly shepherds who come and worship Jesus, but says nothing about the wise men. Matthew, though not disagreeing with Luke's emphasis, wants to present Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies concerning the Messiah. Because the Messiah was to be a descendant of David, the great king of Israel, Matthew emphasizes Jesus' royal origins by recounting the story of the wise men, who are royal astrologers who have followed a star that heralds the birth of a king in order to present him with royal gifts. It's hard to miss the point. Yet, Matthew does not seem to present these wise men as arriving at Jesus' birth, but perhaps as much as two years later. That is, even if we combine the accounts of Matthew and Luke, it probably would be inaccurate to place the shepherds and magi side by side. While on the subject of the manger scene . . . the little drummer boy is absent from the gospel accounts of Jesus' birth. The magi eventually make their way to Jerusalem to ask King Herod, the Roman appointed ruler of the Jews, where the king of the Jews has been born. Herod, as you might imagine, is not too happy to hear about this rival claimant to the throne, even if that rival may still be in diapers. When Herod's officials inform him that the Messiah is suppose to be born in Bethlehem, Herod passes this information on to the wise men, and he asks them to return with news of the child's exact whereabouts so he can also worship (read: kill) him. The Slaughter of the Innocents The wise men continue on their way to Bethlehem, where they find Jesus. However, after they present their gifts to Jesus, they are warned in a dream not to return to Herod because he only intends to kill this newborn king. When Herod finds out that the wise men have left his territory without reporting back to him, he becomes furious and dispatches his soldiers to kill all male children in the vicinity of Bethlehem who are 2 years old and younger — a choice informed by the time told him by the wise men, which suggests that Jesus is approaching 2 years old when the wise men appear. Although Jesus escapes Herod's henchman unharmed (Joseph had been warned in a dream to flee to Egypt) many youngsters do not. Herod's murderous act is often referred to as "The Slaughter of the Innocents." Out of Egypt Matthew reports that Jesus and his parents remain in Egypt until Herod's death in 4 B.C.E., after which they set out for their home. Yet, while on their way, Joseph receives word that Herod's son, Archelaus, is now ruler in Judea. Fearing that Archelaus may be seeking Jesus' life, Joseph decides to take his family to Nazareth. According to Matthew, Jesus' journey to Egypt and his subsequent relocation to Nazareth fulfills two prophecies relating to the Messiah: God would call His son "out of Egypt"— a notice that originally referred to Israel's exodus from Egypt. The Messiah "would be called a Nazarene." It's unclear where this prophecy comes from. Most scholars think it refers to Isaiah 11:1, which predicts the coming of "a sprout (Hebrew: nezer) from the stump of Jesse." Because Jesse is David's father, this passage predicts the coming of a Davidic Messiah who would establish a kingdom of everlasting righteousness and peace. Jesus, then, is the promised "little sprout." Thus, Joseph, Mary, and Jesus settle in Nazareth.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, which is in Judea, near Jerusalem (where David was from and therefore where David's heir was expected to be born; see Micah 5:1). Both of these gospel authors also agree that Jesus grew up in a little hick town called Nazareth, which is in the northern part of the country (the Galilee). It's somewhat embarrassing for Jesus to have grown up here because it really was "Nowheresville," and in that time people expected the famous to come from somewhere famous. Even though the gospels have these few similarities, they differ otherwise. For instance, consider this important set of differences regarding why Jesus was born in Bethlehem: The gospel of Matthew gives the impression that Mary and Joseph have always lived in Bethlehem, and that's why Jesus was born there. And, according to the author of Matthew, the reason that the family ends up in Nazareth is because the southern Herods are so dangerous. The gospel of Luke, by contrast, says Mary and Joseph lived in Nazareth all along, went down to Bethlehem only because the Roman Emperor decreed that everyone return to their ancestral birthplaces to enroll in a census, and returned home after Jesus's birth. Out of all these hometown and birthplace details, the Nazareth connection seems to be the most reliable piece of evidence to historians because Matthew and Luke both report it, and they do so even though it's potentially embarrassing to Jesus. In fact, most scholars think that Nazareth is probably where Jesus was born, too, because outside the infancy narratives in Matthew and Luke, all four gospels presume that he's a Galilean or Nazarene (see Mark 1:9 and 6:1; John 1:45–56 and 7:41–42; Matthew 13:54, 57; Luke 4:16, 23–24). On top of that, the Bethlehem link clearly serves the purpose of painting Jesus as the promised messiah, which naturally raises historians' suspicions about the historical accuracy of the claim.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

It seems likely that Jesus picked 12 followers during his lifetime. The gospels don't explain why Jesus picked these particular guys, and they don't agree about how early in the movement's history they became the core group. But nevertheless, the gospels of Mark and John, which are independent witnesses to the historical Jesus, refer frequently to "the Twelve" (Mark 9:35; 10:32; 11:11; John 6:67–71; 20:24). The author of Luke's gospel usually relies on Mark for his information, but one of Luke's names in his list of the Twelve is different, which may mean that the author had a different and independent list. Here's a list of the disciples who are usually considered "the Twelve," arranged in order of the earliest noted in the gospel of Mark: Peter: He was a fisherman from Capernaum (John says Bethsaida). He's also often called Simon, Simon Peter, or Cephas. (Cephas comes from the Aramaic for "rock," and Peter comes from the Greek equivalent for the same.) Andrew: He was Peter's brother and fishing partner; John's gospel says that Andrew was first a disciple of John the Baptist. James: He was son of Zebedee and a fisherman from Capernaum. He's called "James the Great" in later tradition. John: He was James's brother and partner in the family fishing business. And maybe because they're so brazen, in Mark, Jesus gives the two brothers the name Boanerges, which is a Greek form of the Aramaic "sons of thunder" (Mark 10:35–45). Philip: He was from Bethsaida, another town on the coast of the Sea of Galilee. Bartholomew: This member of the Twelve doesn't get a lot of press. There simply aren't any stories about him apart from the list of the Twelve. Since the ninth century CE, some people have wondered if he's the Nathanael mentioned in John 1:45–51 and 21:2. Why? Because Nathanael is a normal first name and Bartholomew was more likely a surname (the Greek is based on the Aramaic Bar-Talmai, which means "son of Talmai"). Matthew: He's called a toll collector in Matthew's gospel. This reference solves the problem in Mark that the toll collector Levi is called (Mark 2:13–17), but never listed among the Twelve (Mark 3:13–19). Thomas: Thomas, or "twin" in Aramaic, is called "doubting Thomas" because he doubted Jesus's resurrection until he could touch Jesus's wounds himself (John 20:24–29). He's also called Didymus Thomas (which is like saying "twin" twice in both Greek and Aramaic). James: This man, who was the son of Alphaeus, was called in later tradition "James the Less" — not to be confused with James the Great or James brother of Jesus (James was obviously a popular name at the time!). Simon: He was called "the Cananean" (which means "zealous" or "jealous" in Aramaic) in Matthew and Mark and "the Zealot" (the Greek equivalent of the same) in Luke. Thaddeus: There's a bit of controversy when it comes to this 11th disciple. In Mark and Matthew, he's called Thaddeus. Luke, on the other hand, calls this man Jude, son of James. Judas Iscariot: He's the one who betrayed Jesus to the authorities (so he's always put last on lists of the Twelve!). The differences in the various lists suggest that, by the time the gospels were written, the importance of the Twelve had begun to wane. After all, if they or the communities they founded were still potent, their names would be firmly entrenched and well-known to the gospel authors. The Twelve disciples' importance may have been dwindling because of their deaths, because of changing leadership patterns in the church, or simply because traditions about the lesser-known ones had been lost. Another reason the Twelve as a group may not have loomed so large at the end of the first century CE has to do with their role. The gospels report that their job was to preach to Israel (Matthew 10:5–6) and to judge the 12 tribes of Israel at the end of time (Q 22:30). But by the late first century, when the gospels are composed, the message is no longer being preached just to Israel, and the end of time seems indefinitely delayed.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Christian tradition and art depict Mary Magdalene as a prostitute who repented of her evil ways and followed Jesus. That's why Christian outreach services for unwed mothers and prostitutes are often named after her. But this tradition has no basis in the canonical gospels. These works tell us almost nothing about Mary, except that she isn't affiliated with any man (the name "Magdalene" isn't a family name; it was given to her because of the town from which she hails). So why was she transformed into a prostitute? There could be several reasons, including these: Luke introduces her immediately after the story of the sinful woman who anoints Jesus's feet (Luke 7:36–8:2), and because so few women are mentioned in the gospels people assumed that it was the same woman. In John's gospel, a woman named Mary anoints Jesus's feet just before his arrest; she isn't a sinner, and she isn't Mary Magdalene, but people tend to confuse the few women named Mary, especially because they all seem to anoint Jesus's feet (John 12:1–8). Even more confusing is the fact that Mary Magdalene is the one who goes to anoint Jesus's body after his death — you can see why people may have become confused (Mark 16:1–8). The gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke report the apparently common slur that Jesus hung out with "tax collectors and sinners," and "sinners" could include prostitutes and adulterers. Add to that the story of Jesus's encounter with the adulteress that was later tacked on to John's gospel (John 7:53–8:11), and you can see why any woman who hung out with Jesus might be lumped into the "loose women" category. Mary Magdalene was a prominent figure in the early Gnostic Christian communities. In their Gospel of Philip and Gospel of Mary Magdalene, she's portrayed as the disciple Jesus loved most, the one he privileged with special revelation (the metaphor of a divine and definitely asexual kiss is used for that special knowledge). The Gnostics were targeted as heretics by other Christian communities starting in the second century CE. These "mainstream" Christians may have turned Mary into a sinful, sexualized woman in order to strip the heretical Gnostic heroine of her power in people's eyes. A few centuries after Jesus, virginity had become so celebrated that stories of penitent sinners were all the rage — and Mary Magdalene became one.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Both the gospel of Matthew and the gospel of Luke note that Jesus's parents were Mary and Joseph. Both also narrate that Mary was engaged but not married to Joseph when she got pregnant. But the accounts of how they discover this startling news differ slightly. In Matthew's gospel, Joseph is so troubled when he finds out that his fiancée is pregnant that he wants to divorce her (back then, when two people were engaged, they were in a kind of contract, so a bill of divorce would have been necessary). Because he's such a good guy, he wants to break it off quietly rather than humiliate her in public. But before he can do that, Joseph receives a revelation in a dream that the pregnancy is God's work. The angel that delivers this revelation also says that this unusual birth fulfills Isaiah's prophecy that "the virgin will be with child and bear a son, and they shall name him Immanuel, which means 'God with us'" (in the Greek version of Isaiah 7:14; Matthew 1:18–25). Calmed by the angel's message, Joseph goes through with the marriage. To confirm that the child isn't Joseph's, the author says that Joseph didn't have relations with Mary until after Jesus was born (Matthew 1:25). Luke's gospel also portrays Mary as a virgin when she conceives Jesus. But this time, the angel comes to her (rather than Joseph), and tells her of God's plan before the conception. Like Joseph (and perhaps with even greater reason!), she's upset and wonders how in the world she could be pregnant; after all, she knows that she has never slept with a man. But the angel reassures her that God's behind it. Mary consents, saying, "May it be done to me according to your word" (Luke 1:26–38). How much of this information is historical? Well, think of it this way: Historians call things facts only if they can be proven. The gospel accounts corroborate Jesus's parents' names and the unusual circumstances of his conception. But beyond that, you can't really demonstrate the virginal conception and the role of God in Jesus's birth. However, this doesn't mean that these events didn't happen or don't signify anything; it simply means that they can't be proven. What is historical, on the other hand, is that the authors of Matthew and Luke wanted to communicate something through these details. They tried to explain Jesus's unique nature, and the stories of the virginal conception were the best ways to articulate what they believed (that Jesus was the son of God and the heir to the promises to David).